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Biblical history and geography

What is biblical history and geography?

Biblical history and geography is the study of where and when the biblical story happens. It weighs the biblical text, inscriptions and annals from outside the Bible, and archaeology; describes the land, its regions, climate and roads; dates events against the surrounding empires; and grades how securely each biblical place can be identified, from secure to unknown.

  • 146Sources
  • 20Traditions
  • 16Dated entries
  • 15Minutes

Study v1.1, 1 November 2026

Biblical history and geography

At a glance

Why it matters for reading Scripture

Places, routes, kingdoms and dates. Knowing where and when events happened sets each passage in its real setting.

What the study found

Outside records give absolute dates for named kings from Ahab at Qarqar in 853 BCE and anchor Paul by Gallio's proconsulship; earlier dates, the exodus, Sinai and Eden remain unfixed.

Where traditions divide

Scholars divide over the exodus, the united monarchy and regnal systems; traditions divide over the historicity of Genesis to Joshua; modern names for the land divide by authority.

How the traditions compare

  • German tradition history (Wellhausen, Alt, Noth)

    Reads the texts as reflecting the time in which they were written.

    Julius Wellhausen set out the documentary hypothesis and read the patriarchal stories as reflecting the later periods in which they took shape. Albrecht Alt and Martin Noth held that semi-nomadic tribes settled peacefully in the highlands and fought the Canaanites only later, and Noth proposed a single Deuteronomistic History running from Deuteronomy to 2 Kings.

    Sources1–4

  • American biblical archaeology (Albright, Wright, Bright)

    W. F. Albright made archaeological evidence decisive after 1920 and called the patriarchal narratives "essentially historical".

    The "Baltimore School" model of Albright, G. E. Wright and John Bright had Israel enter Canaan by force about 1220 BCE; John Bimson criticized it for occupation gaps at Jericho, Ai and Gibeon and for circular method.

    Sources35

  • Sociological models (Mendenhall, Gottwald)

    George E. Mendenhall started the "peasant revolt" model in 1962.

    Norman K. Gottwald's The Tribes of Yahweh (1979) argued that Israel arose not from nomads, conquest or immigration but from an internal revolt within Canaanite society.

    Sources36–7

  • Copenhagen and Sheffield

    Holds, in Ronald Youngblood's summary, that the Old Testament was produced in the Persian or Hellenistic periods, so that its history reflects the writers' own time.

    Its critics call it "minimalist", and several of the scholars so named reject the label. Thomas L. Thompson called "ancient Israel" a literary construct, and Keith W. Whitelam argues that scholarship obscured the history of ancient Palestine.

    Sources8–10

  • Conservative and maximalist

    Treats the biblical text as a witness.

    Iain W. Provan, V. Philips Long and Tremper Longman III let the Old Testament speak as a witness, often the only witness for the period before the monarchy, and K. A. Kitchen works back from the post-exilic period, the best attested outside the Bible, to argue that the earlier periods deserve a presumption of reliability.

    Sources11–13

  • Archaeology-led (Dever, Finkelstein, Mazar)

    Takes the Iron Age record as the test.

    William G. Dever accepts an Israelite state from David onward; Israel Finkelstein's "low chronology" redates Philistine pottery, and he rejects a 10th-century united monarchy as the Bible describes it; Amihai Mazar takes a "middle-of-the-road" view in which the 9th-century framework of the Deuteronomistic History rests on reliable knowledge.

    Sources14–16

  • Middle syntheses (Grabbe, Liverani, Miller and Hayes)

    Begins from the sources.

    Lester L. Grabbe moves from the biblical and non-biblical sources to analysis against the archaeology, treats the Bible as a secondary source and concludes that the united monarchy existed "not as the Bible pictures it". Mario Liverani traces the biblical texts to the times they were composed and places Israel in its ancient Near Eastern context.

    Sources17–19

  • Conservative evangelical

    The Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy (1978) denies that inerrancy can be limited to spiritual, religious or redemptive themes to the exclusion of history and science, and the Chicago Statement on Biblical Hermeneutics (1982) affirms that Genesis 1 to 11 is factual.

    Answers in Genesis, the strictest of these on the primeval history, holds that the creation days are six consecutive 24-hour days and that Noah's flood was worldwide.

    Sources20–22

  • Critical academic scholarship

    In two Yale lecture courses, which speak for their lecturers rather than the field as a whole, Christine Hayes reads the primeval stories as etiological and calls the exodus "a highly embellished and theologically interpreted myth of origins for a nation", while holding that "most scholars would see David as a real person".

    Dale B. Martin treats Jesus' baptism by John and his crucifixion on a charge of kingship as historically probable.

    Sources23–27

  • Roman Catholic Church

    The Pontifical Biblical Commission's letter to Cardinal Suhard (1948) says of Genesis 1 to 11 that one can "neither deny nor affirm their historicity as a whole".

    Dei Verbum (1965) says the Church "unhesitatingly asserts" the historical character of the four Gospels, and the Catechism of the Catholic Church holds that the account of the fall uses figurative language but affirms a primeval event.

    Sources28–30

  • Eastern Orthodox Church

    Reads the Bible within the living Tradition of the Church: Thomas Hopko's catechetical The Orthodox Faith allows that scholars may help through archaeological, historical and literary study, but holds that academic work alone cannot produce the proper interpretation.

    On the primeval history Orthodox readers draw on the Fathers, and Orthodox views on Genesis and evolution divide.

    Sources31–33

  • Orthodox Judaism

    Maimonides lists the divine origin and the immutability of the Torah among his Thirteen Principles, and classes as a denier of the Torah one who says that even one verse is not from God, which underlies the principle of Torah min ha-shamayim.

    Sources34–35

  • Conservative Judaism

    Rabbi David Wolpe's Passover sermons of 2001 concluded that "the way the Bible describes the Exodus is not the way it happened, if it happened at all", while holding that "faith is independent of doubt"; a 2005 report states that he was reporting archaeologists' doubts rather than his own view.

    The movement's Humash, Etz Hayim (2001), is reported to incorporate recent biblical scholarship and archaeological findings.

    Sources36–40

  • Reform Judaism

    The Central Conference of American Rabbis' Pittsburgh Statement of Principles (1999) describes Torah as "God's ongoing revelation to our people", without affirming the historicity of particular narratives.

    Sources41

  • Academic scholarship for Jewish readers

    Writing at TheTorah.com, Ronald Hendel argues that "the Exodus is a cultural memory of a historical era that really happened", Egypt's rule over Canaan and its collapse, rather than the record of a single mass departure.

    Richard Elliott Friedman argues in The Exodus (2017) that the exodus has a historical basis only if it refers to a small movement of Levites from Egypt to Canaan.

    Sources42–45

  • Latter-day Saints

    The eighth Article of Faith states: "We believe the Bible to be the word of God as far as it is translated correctly; we also believe the Book of Mormon to be the word of God."

    Sources46

  • Seventh-day Adventists

    Fundamental Belief 6 states that "in a recent six-day creation the Lord made the heavens and the earth", and Fundamental Belief 1 calls Scripture "the trustworthy record of God's acts in history".

    Sources47

  • Jehovah's Witnesses

    Date the destruction of Jerusalem to 607 BCE, counting a literal 70 years back from a return they place in 537 BCE, while acknowledging that 586 or 587 BCE is generally accepted.

    Sources48

  • Islam

    The Qur'an, 17:1, speaks of God taking His servant by night from the Sacred Mosque to the Farthest Mosque, and in 5:21 Moses tells his people Enter the Holy Land which Allah has destined for you.

    UNESCO describes the Al-Ibrahimi Mosque/Tomb of the Patriarchs in Hebron as a pilgrimage site for the three monotheistic religions.

    Sources49–51

  • Samaritans

    Hold that God chose Mount Gerizim near Shechem, where Jews hold that God chose Mount Zion in Jerusalem, and accept only the Pentateuch as scripture.

    The Gerizim temple was destroyed by John Hyrcanus in the second century BCE.

    Sources52–53

How the field developed

  1. Late antiquity
    c. 330

    Eusebius of Caesarea probably completes the Onomasticon, an alphabetical gazetteer of biblical place names that locates places by distances in Roman miles from fixed cities. Jerome translates it into Latin around 390, correcting errors and adding fourth-century churches.54

  2. Late antiquity
    Late 4th century

    Egeria's pilgrimage account shows sites identified on the ground by local monks, among them Sinai and the burning bush. The evidence for the Christian tradition placing Sinai at Jebel Musa dates no earlier than this Byzantine period.5556

  3. Modern
    1650 to 1654

    James Ussher's Annales Veteris Testamenti, working from the Old Testament genealogies, places creation in 4004 BCE. From 1701 every edition of the King James Bible prints the date in the margin at Genesis.5758

  4. Modern
    1838

    Edward Robinson identifies Khirbet Seilun with Shiloh.59

  5. Modern
    1872 to 1878

    The Palestine Exploration Fund, founded in London in 1865, carries out the Survey of Western Palestine under Claude Conder. Its Memoirs, by C. R. Conder and H. H. Kitchener, are published from 1881 to 1883.6061

  6. Modern
    1878

    Julius Wellhausen's Geschichte Israels is published, the work that appears in 1883 as Prolegomena zur Geschichte Israels. Wellhausen set out the documentary hypothesis and dated the priestly laws to the Babylonian exile.621

  7. Modern
    1894

    George Adam Smith's The Historical Geography of the Holy Land likens Syria to "a bridge between Asia and Africa" and is organized by region. Todd Bolen counts 26 editions with largely unchanged content.6364

  8. Modern
    1925 and 1929

    Albrecht Alt's studies of the settlement argue against a single, simultaneous invasion by all the tribes, the basis of the Alt and Noth model of "peaceful infiltration".653

  9. Modern
    1930 and 1943

    Martin Noth explains pre-state Israel by analogy with the Greek amphictyony, a league of twelve tribes around a central sanctuary, and then proposes a single Deuteronomistic History, a historical work of the 6th century BCE.4

  10. Modern
    1951

    Edwin R. Thiele's The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings appears, with revised editions in 1965 and 1994. Rodger Young calls it the starting place for all subsequent studies of Old Testament chronology that take the Masoretic text seriously.666768

  11. Modern
    1962

    George E. Mendenhall's "The Hebrew Conquest of Palestine" starts the "peasant revolt" model. Yohanan Aharoni's The Land of the Bible appears in Hebrew, followed by an English edition in 1967 and a revision in 1979.3669

  12. Modern
    1974 and 1975

    Thomas L. Thompson's The Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives and John Van Seters' Abraham in History and Tradition end the view, common in America, that the patriarchal period was historically reliable.70

  13. Modern
    1992

    Philip R. Davies's In Search of "Ancient Israel" distinguishes the "biblical Israel" of the texts from the historical population of Iron Age Palestine and from the scholarly construct "ancient Israel".7172

  14. Modern
    1996

    Israel Finkelstein's "The Archaeology of the United Monarchy: An Alternative View" launches the "low chronology"; Amihai Mazar replies in 1997 and Finkelstein answers in 1998.7374

  15. Modern
    2003

    Provan, Long and Longman's A Biblical History of Israel and K. A. Kitchen's On the Reliability of the Old Testament set out the conservative case.1112

  16. Modern
    2007

    Lester L. Grabbe's Ancient Israel: What Do We Know and How Do We Know It? (revised 2017) calls itself a "prolegomena" to a history of Israel and takes a middle position.1718

How to study biblical history and geography

The questions it asks

  • How do historians of Israel and of the early church work, and where do their schools part?
  • Which texts outside the Bible name the people and events of the Bible, and what do they show?
  • What is the land like, and how did it shape the story?
  • Which empires surrounded it, and in what order?
  • Which dates are fixed, which fall within a range, and which cannot be fixed by historical method at all?
  • Where are the places the biblical story names, and how confident is each identification?
  • How do the religious traditions read the history?

Its method

Start

  1. Gather the three kinds of evidence: the biblical text, epigraphic sources such as inscriptions, and the material record recovered by archaeology75.

  2. Read each outside text for what it is: royal monuments and annals were written to celebrate a king, and their own editors warn that victory claims and figures in them are royal propaganda, while working documents such as letters, dockets, contracts and petitions carry incidental names and dates767778.

  3. Separate relative dates, counted from another event inside the text, as 1 Kings 6:1 counts from the exodus, from absolute dates, which are reached only when such a chain is tied to an anchor outside the text79.

  4. Tie the chain to fixed points: the Assyrian eponym lists record a solar eclipse placed on 15 June 763 BCE, and through them Ahab at Qarqar in 853 BCE and Jehu's tribute in 841 BCE are dated8081827683.

  5. Convert the regnal numbers only after naming the choices behind them: accession or non-accession reckoning, the month the regnal year began, how each kingdom counted the other's kings, coregencies, and whether methods changed over time68.

  6. Name the system a date depends on, since the systems differ: the division of the kingdom is 931/930 BCE for Thiele, Galil and Kitchen and 922 BCE for Albright and Bright8485.

  7. For the Hellenistic and Roman periods, convert the ancient reckonings by the Seleucid era, Olympiads, Roman consuls, regnal years and Jewish months, noting that one Seleucid year can convert to two BCE years868788.

  8. Keep the place apart from the events placed there: a site can be secure while the date or nature of what happened there stays disputed, as at Jericho and Shiloh8990.

  9. Keep the late antique placements of Eusebius and Egeria apart from modern identifications, and check them against archaeological survey, the Roman itineraries and the Madaba Map5455.

  10. Date every figure that changes over time, such as the level of the Dead Sea, which fell from 389 m below sea level in 1896 to about 430 m by the mid-2010s9192.

What to read

Its primary witnesses

  • The Merneptah stele, about 1209 to 1207 BCE, the earliest known mention of Israel, which writes Israel with the signs for a people rather than a city-state or land939495.
  • The Mesha stele, which states that Omri humbled Moab many years, and the Tel Dan stele, whose "House of David" is the earliest known mention of the Davidic dynasty outside the Bible96979899.
  • The Assyrian annals: the Kurkh monolith, which lists "Ahab the Israelite" among the allied kings at Qarqar in 853 BCE, and the Black Obelisk, with the tribute of Jehu7610083.
  • The Babylonian Chronicles, which record that in his seventh year Nebuchadnezzar seized "the city of Judah" and captured the king, and the Nabonidus Chronicle on the fall of Babylon in 539 BCE101102.
  • Hebrew working documents, among them the Samaria ostraca and the Arad and Lachish letters of Judah's last years103104105.
  • The Elephantine petition of 407 BCE, naming Bagohi, Johanan and the sons of Sanballat106.
  • Roman writers and inscriptions: Tacitus on the execution of Christus under Pontius Pilate in the reign of Tiberius, and the Delphi inscription that dates Gallio's proconsulship to 51 to 52 CE107108109.
  • The fourth-century geographical witnesses, Eusebius' Onomasticon and Egeria's pilgrimage account5455.

Standard reference works

  • George Adam Smith's The Historical Geography of the Holy Land (1894; 9th edition 1902)6364.
  • Yohanan Aharoni's The Land of the Bible (Hebrew 1962, English 1967, revised 1979, edited by A. F. Rainey)69.
  • Anson F. Rainey and R. Steven Notley's The Sacred Bridge: Carta's Atlas of the Biblical World (second edition, 2014), a historical geography of the Levant from the fourth millennium BCE to 135 CE110.
  • The Carta Bible Atlas, formerly The Macmillan Bible Atlas (fifth edition, 2011), and the Oxford Bible Atlas (1962; fourth edition, 2007)111112113114.
  • The Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World, edited by Richard J. A. Talbert (2000)115.
  • David A. Dorsey's The Roads and Highways of Ancient Israel (1991), which reconstructs about 245 roads and branches of the Old Testament period116.
  • A. R. Millard's The Eponyms of the Assyrian Empire 910 to 612 BC (1994)80117.
  • Edwin R. Thiele's The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings (1951; revised 1965 and 1994)6667.
  • J. Maxwell Miller and John H. Hayes's A History of Ancient Israel and Judah (second edition, 2006), and Megan Bishop Moore and Brad E. Kelle's Biblical History and Israel's Past (2011)75118.
  • The OpenBible.info Bible Geocoding Data, under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 license119.

Scholarship referenced in this study

The works below shaped the field and are cited in this study, from the earliest to the most recent. Hover over a book, or select it, to see its author and the sources behind it.

  • c. 330OnomasticonEusebius of CaesareaOnomasticon (c. 330)Eusebius of CaesareaSources54
  • 1878Geschichte IsraelsJulius WellhausenGeschichte Israels (1878)Julius Wellhausen (1844 to 1918)Sources162
  • 1894The Historical Geography of the Holy LandGeorge Adam SmithThe Historical Geography of the Holy Land (1894)George Adam SmithSources63–64
  • 1930Das System der zwölf Stämme IsraelsMartin NothDas System der zwölf Stämme Israels (1930)Martin Noth (1902 to 30 May 1968)Sources4
  • 1960A History of IsraelJohn BrightA History of Israel (1960)John BrightSources3
  • 1962The Land of the BibleYohanan AharoniThe Land of the Bible (1962)Yohanan AharoniSources69
  • 1974The Historicity of the Patriarchal NarrativesThomas L. ThompsonThe Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives (1974)Thomas L. ThompsonSources70
  • 1979The Tribes of YahwehNorman K. GottwaldThe Tribes of Yahweh (1979)Norman K. GottwaldSources7
  • 1992In Search of "Ancient Israel"Philip R. DaviesIn Search of "Ancient Israel" (1992)Philip R. Davies (31 May 2018)Sources71120
  • 2003On the Reliability of the Old TestamentK. A. KitchenOn the Reliability of the Old Testament (2003)K. A. KitchenSources12–13
  • 2007Ancient Israel: What Do We Know and How Do We Know It?Lester L. GrabbeAncient Israel: What Do We Know and How Do We Know It? (2007)Lester L. GrabbeSources17–18
  • 2014The Sacred Bridge: Carta's Atlas of the Biblical WorldAnson F. RaineyThe Sacred Bridge: Carta's Atlas of the Biblical World (2014)Anson F. Rainey, with R. Steven NotleySources110

Listed because this study draws on their published work; no association with or endorsement of Numa Verse is implied. Suggest a correction.

Key terms

The words that carry the most weight in this field, each defined from the sources of this study. Turn a card over to read its definition.

A relative date counts from another event inside the text, as 1 Kings 6:1 places Solomon's fourth year in the 480th year after the exodus; an absolute date places an event on a continuous calendar79.

The Assyrian (limmu) lists naming one official for each year, on which Assyrian absolute chronology rests80117.

Counting in which the part year in which a king takes the throne is not his first year; in non-accession reckoning it is, so the scriptural total is one more than the elapsed time121.

A period in which a son reigned alongside his father, so that two reigns overlap122123.

Israel Finkelstein's redating of Philistine pottery, which shifts the dating of the 10th and 9th centuries BCE across the region and challenges Yadin's attribution of the gates and palaces of Megiddo, Hazor and Gezer to Solomon7315.

The label its critics give to the Copenhagen and Sheffield school, whose core thesis is that the Old Testament was produced in the Persian or Hellenistic periods; several of the scholars so named reject the label8.

A league of tribes around a central sanctuary, by analogy with which Martin Noth explained pre-state Israel; Martin Rösel calls the thesis "no longer tenable"4124.

Noth's proposal (1943) of a single historical work of the 6th century BCE running from Deuteronomy to 2 Kings4.

The foothills, the second of the four zones that lie side by side from west to east, after the coastal plain and before the central hill country; George Adam Smith calls it debatable ground that changed hands repeatedly between Israelites and Philistines125126.

The biblical phrase "the way of the sea" (Isaiah 8:23 in Hebrew numbering, 9:1 in English Bibles); via maris is the Vulgate's Latin rendering, now used as if it were the road's ancient name127128129.

Where it sits

Builds on

Biblical history and geography

Leads to

From the Journal

Ruins of the Roman theatre at Caesarea beside the Mediterranean SeaAI-generated imageBiblical history

Was Jesus a real historical person?

Yes, according to the great majority of historians of antiquity, Christian and non-Christian alike. History can establish only part of his story, and some claims about him belong to faith.Numa Verse Editorial · November 2026 · 6 min read

Questions people ask

Its date is not agreed. It is placed in 1446 BCE by Bryant Wood, from 1 Kings 6:1, Judges 11:26 and 1 Chronicles 6:33 to 37; in about 1270 to 1260 BCE by James K. Hoffmeier; at the Hyksos expulsion by Josephus; as the memory of a small group; or it is questioned altogether1301311324543.

The Merneptah stele, found by Flinders Petrie in 1896 in Merneptah's mortuary temple at Thebes, whose closing hymn states "Israel is laid waste, his seed is no more"13313495. It is dated by the reign assigned to Merneptah to about 1209 to 1207 BCE, and it writes Israel with the signs for a people, not a city-state or land9394.

Its location is unknown. Jebel Musa in southern Sinai has been the Christian Sinai since the fourth century CE, though the evidence for it dates no earlier than the Byzantine period13556. At least seven other candidates are argued, among them Har Karkom in the Negev and sites in northwest Arabia136137.

The execution under Pontius Pilate in the reign of Tiberius is secure: Tacitus and the Gospels agree on the governor and the reign107138. The exact date depends on the calendar reconstruction and the Gospel chronology chosen, and Guillermo Gonzalez gives 7 April 30 CE and 3 April 33 CE as the two dates most New Testament chronologists have settled on139.

It cannot be fixed on a map from the text: of the four rivers of Genesis 2:10 to 14, only the Tigris and Euphrates match known rivers140. Proposals run from the marshes of southern Iraq to the Persian Gulf, and Gordon Wenham, G. K. Beale and Terje Stordalen read Eden as a sanctuary141142143144145146.

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  1. 1Project Gutenberg, Julius Wellhausen, Prolegomena to the History of Israel, eBook 4732, 2003https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/4732 (opens in a new tab)
  2. 2Ronald Hendel, "On Cultural Memory", The Bible and Interpretation (University of Arizona), 2026https://bibleinterp.arizona.edu/articles/cultural-memory (opens in a new tab)
  3. 3John J. Bimson, "The Origins of Israel in Canaan: An Examination of Recent Theories", Themelios 15.1https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/themelios/article/the-origins-of-israel-in-canaan-an-examination-of-recent-theories/ (opens in a new tab)
  4. 4Deutsche Biographie, "Noth, Martin"https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/118588826.html (opens in a new tab)
  5. 5Leon J. Wood, "Present Trend in O.T. Theology as Represented in the Albright Influence", Bulletin of the Evangelical Theological Society 1.4, 1958https://gospelstudies.org.uk/biblicalstudies/pdf/bets/vol01/albright_wood.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  6. 6BAS Library, "Endnote 2: Mendenhall Disavows Paternity" (citation of Mendenhall, BA 25, 1962)https://library.biblicalarchaeology.org/endnote/endnote-2-mendenhall-disavows-paternity/ (opens in a new tab)
  7. 7Richard Coggins, review of N. K. Gottwald, The Tribes of Yahweh, King's Theological Review 3.2, 1980https://mail.biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/kings-theological-review/kings-theological-review_03-02_071.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  8. 8Ronald Youngblood, review article (Bright, Hoerth, Kaiser, Lemche), Ashland Theological Journal 34, 2002https://gospelstudies.org.uk/biblicalstudies/pdf/ashland_theological_journal/34-1_081.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  9. 9Richard S. Hess, review of L. L. Grabbe (ed.), Can a "History of Israel" Be Written?, Denver Journal 2, 1999https://denverjournal.denverseminary.edu/the-denver-journal-article/can-a-history-of-israel-be-written/ (opens in a new tab)
  10. 10Routledge, The Invention of Ancient Israel (Whitelam), 1996https://www.routledge.com/The-Invention-of-Ancient-Israel-The-Silencing-of-Palestinian-History/Whitelam/p/book/9780415107594 (opens in a new tab)
  11. 11Eugene H. Merrill, review of Provan, Long and Longman, A Biblical History of Israel, DTS Voice, 2005https://voice.dts.edu/review/iain-provan-a-biblical-history-of-israel/ (opens in a new tab)
  12. 12Eugene H. Merrill, review of K. A. Kitchen, On the Reliability of the Old Testament, DTS Voice, 2005https://voice.dts.edu/review/kenneth-a-kitchen-on-the-reliability-of-the-old-testament/ (opens in a new tab)
  13. 13Michael J. Williams, review of Kitchen, On the Reliability of the Old Testament, Calvin Theological Journalhttps://www.calvin.edu/library/database/crcpi/fulltext/ctj/117800.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  14. 14David G. Hansen, review of Dever, JETS 46/2, 2003https://ets.galaxie.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/files_JETS-PDFs_46_46-2_46-2-pp309-360_JETS.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  15. 15Solomon Pasala, "Archaeological Evidences for Solomonic Period", Folia Theologica 16, 2005 (Hungaricana)https://library.hungaricana.hu/en/view/PazmanyHTK_FoliaTheologica_16_2005/?pg=137 (opens in a new tab)
  16. 16Israel Finkelstein and Amihai Mazar, ed. Brian B. Schmidt, The Quest for the Historical Israel (excerpt PDF), Society of Biblical Literature, 2007https://www.sbl-site.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/12/FinkelsteinMazar.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  17. 17Brady Beard, review of L. L. Grabbe, Ancient Israel (rev. ed.), Reading Religion (AAR), 2018https://readingreligion.org/9780567670434/ (opens in a new tab)
  18. 18University of Pretoria Repository, review of Grabbe, Ancient Israel (2007)https://repository.up.ac.za/handle/2263/50068 (opens in a new tab)
  19. 19Cambridge Core, M. Liverani, Israel's History and the History of Israelhttps://core-cms.cambridgecore.org/core/books/israels-history-and-the-history-of-israel/A91BF0EC2993E8C418F5E3412A15E6DB (opens in a new tab)
  20. 20International Council on Biblical Inerrancy, The Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy, Evangelical Theological Society archive, 1978https://archive.etsjets.org/files/documents/Chicago_Statement.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  21. 21International Council on Biblical Inerrancy, The Chicago Statement on Biblical Hermeneutics, Dallas Theological Seminary library, 1982https://library.dts.edu/Pages/TL/Special/ICBI_2.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  22. 22Answers in Genesis, Statement of Faith, answersingenesis.orghttps://answersingenesis.org/about/faith/ (opens in a new tab)
  23. 23Open Yale Courses, RLST 145 Introduction to the Old Testament (Hebrew Bible), course page and lecture listhttps://oyc.yale.edu/religious-studies/rlst-145 (opens in a new tab)
  24. 24Christine Hayes, RLST 145 Lecture 4, Doublets and Contradictions, Seams and Sources: Genesis 5 to 11, Open Yale Courseshttps://oyc.yale.edu/religious-studies/rlst-145/lecture-4 (opens in a new tab)
  25. 25Christine Hayes, RLST 145 Lecture 7, Israel in Egypt: Moses and the Beginning of Yahwism, Open Yale Courseshttps://oyc.yale.edu/religious-studies/rlst-145/lecture-7 (opens in a new tab)
  26. 26Christine Hayes, RLST 145 Lecture 13, The Deuteronomistic History: Prophets and Kings (1 and 2 Samuel), Open Yale Courseshttps://oyc.yale.edu/religious-studies/rlst-145/lecture-13 (opens in a new tab)
  27. 27Dale B. Martin, RLST 152 Lecture 13, The Historical Jesus, Open Yale Courseshttps://oyc.yale.edu/religious-studies/rlst-152/lecture-13 (opens in a new tab)
  28. 28Pontifical Biblical Commission, Letter to Cardinal Suhard on the sources of the Pentateuch and Genesis 1 to 11 (Italian), vatican.va, 1948https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/pcb_documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_19480116_fonti-pentateuco_it.html (opens in a new tab)
  29. 29Second Vatican Council, Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Revelation Dei Verbum, vatican.va, 1965https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19651118_dei-verbum_en.html (opens in a new tab)
  30. 30Catechism of the Catholic Church, Part One, Section Two (incl. 390), vatican.vahttps://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P1C.HTM (opens in a new tab)
  31. 31Orthodox Church in America, The Orthodox Faith (Hopko), Doctrine and Scripture: Interpretation, oca.orghttps://www.oca.org/orthodoxy/the-orthodox-faith/doctrine-scripture/the-bible/interpretation (opens in a new tab)
  32. 32Basil of Caesarea, Hexaemeron Homily 9, New Advent (NPNF translation)https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/32019.htm (opens in a new tab)
  33. 33Priest George Maximov, The impasse of "Orthodox" evolutionism, OrthoChristian.comhttps://orthochristian.com/91496.html (opens in a new tab)
  34. 34Chabad.org, Maimonides' 13 Principles of Faithhttps://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/332555/jewish/Maimonides-13-Principles-of-Faith.htm (opens in a new tab)
  35. 35Maimonides, Mishneh Torah, Laws of Repentance 3:8 (Touger translation), Sefariahttps://www.sefaria.org/api/texts/Mishneh_Torah,_Repentance.3.8?context=0 (opens in a new tab)
  36. 36Tugend, T. (JTA), "L.A. rabbi creates furor by questioning Exodus story," J. The Jewish News of Northern California, 4 May 2001https://jweekly.com/2001/05/04/l-a-rabbi-creates-furor-by-questioning-exodus-story/ (opens in a new tab)
  37. 37Wall, A., "Exodus exposed," J. The Jewish News of Northern California, 25 March 2005https://jweekly.com/2005/03/25/exodus-exposed/ (opens in a new tab)
  38. 38Rabbinical Assembly, Etz Hayim: Torah and Commentary, Bereshit excerpt (front matter), 2001https://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/sites/default/files/2021-09/bereshit-etz-hayim.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  39. 39J. Correspondent, "New Chumash making its way to Conservative synagogues," J., 21 December 2001https://jweekly.com/2001/12/21/new-chumash-making-its-way-to-conservative-synagogues/ (opens in a new tab)
  40. 40Brawarsky, S., "Book Award Is A Commentary," JTA, 27 September 2002https://www.jta.org/?p=1793064 (opens in a new tab)
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  42. 42TheTorah.com (Academic Torah Institute), Abouthttps://www.thetorah.com/about (opens in a new tab)
  43. 43Ronald Hendel, "Freedom from the Egyptian Empire," TheTorah.com, 2015https://www.thetorah.com/article/freedom-from-the-egyptian-empire (opens in a new tab)
  44. 44Hendel, R. S., "The Exodus and Cultural Memory," Biblical Archaeology Societyhttps://old.biblicalarchaeology.org/node/47546 (opens in a new tab)
  45. 45Emily Filler, review of R. E. Friedman, The Exodus, Reading Religion (American Academy of Religion), 2019https://readingreligion.org/books/exodus (opens in a new tab)
  46. 46The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, The Articles of Faithhttps://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/pgp/a-of-f/1?lang=eng (opens in a new tab)
  47. 47Seventh-day Adventist Church, 28 Fundamental Beliefs, adventist.orghttps://www.adventist.org/beliefs/ (opens in a new tab)
  48. 48Jehovah's Witnesses, When Was Ancient Jerusalem Destroyed? Part One, The Watchtower, October 2011, jw.orghttps://www.jw.org/en/library/magazines/wp20111001/When-Was-Ancient-Jerusalem-Destroyed-Part-One/ (opens in a new tab)
  49. 49Qur'an 17:1, Quran.comhttps://quran.com/17/1 (opens in a new tab)
  50. 50Qur'an 5:21 (Mustafa Khattab, The Clear Quran), Quran.comhttps://quran.com/5/21 (opens in a new tab)
  51. 51UNESCO World Heritage Centre, Hebron/Al-Khalil Old Townhttps://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1565 (opens in a new tab)
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  53. 53Matthew Chalmers, review of Pummer, The Samaritans, Reading Religion, 2017https://readingreligion.org/9780802867681/ (opens in a new tab)
  54. 54C. Umhau Wolf (tr.), Eusebius, Onomasticon, Introduction, 1971, tertullian.orghttps://www.tertullian.org/fathers/eusebius_onomasticon_01_intro.htm (opens in a new tab)
  55. 55M. L. McClure and C. L. Feltoe (tr.), The Pilgrimage of Etheria, SPCK, 1919, CCELhttps://www.ccel.org/m/mcclure/etheria/etheria.htm (opens in a new tab)
  56. 56Hershel Shanks, Where Is Mount Sinai? The Case for Har Karkom and the Case for Saudi Arabia, Biblical Archaeology Review, 2014https://library.biblicalarchaeology.org/article/where-is-mount-sinai/ (opens in a new tab)
  57. 57Linda Hall Library, "Scientist of the Day: James Ussher"https://www.lindahall.org/about/news/scientist-of-the-day/james-ussher (opens in a new tab)
  58. 58University of Illinois Rare Book and Manuscript Library, "Annales Veteris Testamenti" (Ussher, London, 1654)https://exhibits.library.illinois.edu/s/rbml/item/3923 (opens in a new tab)
  59. 59Scott Stripling and Suzanne Lattimer, Go Now to Shiloh, Popular Archaeology, 2017https://popular-archaeology.com/article/go-now-to-shiloh/ (opens in a new tab)
  60. 60Palestine Exploration Fund, Home pagehttps://www.pef.org.uk/ (opens in a new tab)
  61. 61Internet Archive, Conder, C. R. and Kitchener, H. H., The Survey of Western Palestine: Memoirs, vol. 1, PEF 1881https://archive.org/details/surveyofwesternp01conduoft (opens in a new tab)
  62. 62Internet Archive metadata, Wellhausen, Geschichte Israels, G. Reimer, 1878 (Oxford copy)https://archive.org/metadata/geschichteisrae00wellgoog/metadata (opens in a new tab)
  63. 63George Adam Smith, The Historical Geography of the Holy Land, 9th ed., A. C. Armstrong and Son / Hodder and Stoughton, 1902 (Internet Archive scan, front matter and Chapter I read)https://dn721807.ca.archive.org/0/items/historicalgeogra00smitrich/historicalgeogra00smitrich.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  64. 64George Adam Smith, The Historical Geography of the Holy Land (Internet Archive full text, contents and prefaces read)https://archive.org/stream/historicalgeogra00smitrich/historicalgeogra00smitrich_djvu.txt (opens in a new tab)
  65. 65"The Twelve-Tribe Israelite Amphictyony: An Appraisal", in Interpreting Ancient Israelite History, Prophecy, and Law, James Clarke & Co, 2017 (chapter extract)https://www.jamesclarke.co/storage/extracts/interpreting-ancient-israelite-ch3.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  66. 66Siegfried H. Horn, review of E. R. Thiele, The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings (1965 edition), Andrews University Seminary Studies 5/2, 1967https://www.andrews.edu/library/car/cardigital/Periodicals/AUSS/1967-2/1967-2-14.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  67. 67Kregel Publications, Edwin R. Thiele, The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings, revised edition, publisher page, 1994https://www.kregel.com/biblical-studies/the-mysterious-numbers-of-the-hebrew-kings/ (opens in a new tab)
  68. 68Rodger C. Young, "When Did Solomon Die?", Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 46/4, 2003https://rcyoung.org/articles/solomon.html (opens in a new tab)
  69. 69John E. Goldingay, review of Y. Aharoni, The Land of the Bible, Churchman 95/1https://gospelstudies.org.uk/biblicalstudies/pdf/churchman/095-01_061.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  70. 70Marc Brettler, "The Copenhagen School: The Historiographical Issues", AJS Review 27/1, Cambridge University Press, 2003https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/ajs-review/article/abs/copenhagen-school-the-historiographical-issues/6ECE6C30BEE4FE8D9E033E434115CC32 (opens in a new tab)
  71. 71Ziony Zevit, review of P. R. Davies, In Search of Ancient Israel (JSOTSup 148), AJS Review 20/1, 1995https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/ajs-review/article/abs/philip-r-davies-in-search-of-ancient-israel-journal-for-the-study-of-the-old-testament-supplement-series-148-sheffield-jsot-press-1992-172-pp/119D6AA37CE93BEA6D4CC74B47103C39 (opens in a new tab)
  72. 72Philip R. Davies, "The Old Testament and History", in The Bible for the Curious, Equinox, 2018https://equinoxpub.com/home/view-chapter/?id=35684 (opens in a new tab)
  73. 73OCIANA (Ohio State University), citation record: Finkelstein, Levant 28, 1996https://ociana.osu.edu/citations/5834 (opens in a new tab)
  74. 74BAS Library, "Endnote 6: Will Tel Rehov Save the United Monarchy?"https://library.biblicalarchaeology.org/endnote/endnote-6-will-tel-rehov-save-the-united-monarchy/ (opens in a new tab)
  75. 75Westminster John Knox Press, A History of Ancient Israel and Judah, Second Edition (Miller and Hayes), 2006https://www.wjkbooks.com/Products/0664223583/a-history-of-ancient-israel-and-judah-second-edition.aspx (opens in a new tab)
  76. 76Center for Online Judaic Studies, "Kurkh Stele, 853 BCE"https://cojs.org/?p=6525 (opens in a new tab)
  77. 77British Museum, "The Cyrus Cylinder", collection object 90920 / 1880,0617.1941https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1880-0617-1941 (opens in a new tab)
  78. 78S. Faigenbaum-Golovin et al., "Algorithmic handwriting analysis of the Samaria inscriptions illuminates bureaucratic apparatus in biblical Israel", PLOS ONE 15.1 (2020) e0227452https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0227452 (opens in a new tab)
  79. 79Sefaria, 1 Kings 6:1 (JPS)https://www.sefaria.org/api/texts/I_Kings.6.1 (opens in a new tab)
  80. 80NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Solar eclipse map, -762 June 15https://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/SEsearch/SEsearchmap.php?Ecl=-07620615 (opens in a new tab)
  81. 81Biblical Archaeology Society Library, image details, Assyrian eponym list tablet (image credit A. Millard)https://library.biblicalarchaeology.org/images/bsba290505200ljpg/ (opens in a new tab)
  82. 82NASA GSFC, Five Millennium Catalog of Solar Eclipses, -0799 to -0700https://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/SEcat5/SE-0799--0700.html (opens in a new tab)
  83. 83Center for Online Judaic Studies, "Annals Edition 4: The Black Obelisk, 828 or 827 BCE"https://cojs.org/?p=4623 (opens in a new tab)
  84. 84Hadar Horen, "Shitot ha-hoqrim: shenot shilton malkhei Yisrael ve-Yehudah" (Scholars' Methods: Reign Lengths of the Kings of Israel and Judah), after Israel and Judah in the Biblical Period page 130 and The History of the Land of Israel (Yad Ben-Zvi), Daathttps://www.daat.ac.il/daat/tanach/chronology/shiltonshitot.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  85. 85Kenneth A. Kitchen, "How We Know When Solomon Ruled", Biblical Archaeology Review, September/October 2001, BAS Libraryhttps://library.biblicalarchaeology.org/article/how-we-know-when-solomon-ruled/ (opens in a new tab)
  86. 861 Maccabees 1 with NABRE notes, United States Conference of Catholic Bishopshttps://bible.usccb.org/bible/1maccabees/1 (opens in a new tab)
  87. 87Josephus, Antiquities 14.4, trans. Whiston, CCELhttps://ccel.org/ccel/josephus/complete/complete.ii.xv.iv.html (opens in a new tab)
  88. 88Diodorus Siculus, Library of History 17.40 to 63, Loeb Classical Library vol. 8 (1963), LacusCurtius, University of Chicagohttps://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/17C*.html (opens in a new tab)
  89. 89Titus Kennedy, The Bronze Age Destruction of Jericho, Archaeology, and the Book of Joshua, Religions 14(6):796, MDPI, 2023https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/14/6/796/html (opens in a new tab)
  90. 90Israel Finkelstein, Shiloh Yields Some, But Not All, of Its Secrets, Biblical Archaeology Review, 1986https://library.biblicalarchaeology.org/article/shiloh-yields-some-but-not-all-of-its-secrets/ (opens in a new tab)
  91. 91Encyclopaedia Britannica, "Dead Sea"https://www.britannica.com/place/Dead-Sea (opens in a new tab)
  92. 92Jordan Tourism Board, "Wadi Mujib"https://international.visitjordan.com/wheretogo/wadi-mujib/ (opens in a new tab)
  93. 93Biblical Archaeology Society, The Merneptah Stela: Israel Enters History (sidebar), BAS Libraryhttps://library.biblicalarchaeology.org/sidebar/the-merneptah-stela-israel-enters-history/ (opens in a new tab)
  94. 94Larry D. Bruce, "The Merenptah Stele and the Biblical Origins of Israel," JETS 62.3, 2019, pp. 463 to 493https://etsjets.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/files_JETS-PDFs_62_62-3_JETS_62.3_463-493_Bruce.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  95. 95Jeffrey H. Tigay, NELC 150 slide 3 (Merneptah stele, Rainey translation), University of Pennsylvaniahttps://www.sas.upenn.edu/~jtigay/nelc150slides/slide3.html (opens in a new tab)
  96. 96B. Oded, "Mesha Stele", Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com (Gale)https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/mesha-stele (opens in a new tab)
  97. 97Musée du Louvre, Stèle de Mesha, AO 5066, collections databasehttps://collections.louvre.fr/en/ark:/53355/cl010120339 (opens in a new tab)
  98. 98The Jewish Museum, New York, collection gallery text, "Tel Dan" section, 2025https://thejewishmuseum.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/07/JM_Collection_Tel_Dan_Section_Text_FINAL-2.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  99. 99Museum of the Bible, Washington DC, "Tel Dan Stele" exhibit page, 2025https://www.museumofthebible.org/exhibits/teldanstelemotb (opens in a new tab)
  100. 100British Museum, "The Black Obelisk", collection object 118885 / 1848,1104.1https://britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1848-1104-1 (opens in a new tab)
  101. 101Livius.org (primary text), "ABC 5 (Jerusalem Chronicle)", translation adapted from A. K. Grayson, Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles (1975) and J.-J. Glassner, Mesopotamian Chronicles (2004)https://www.livius.org/sources/content/mesopotamian-chronicles-content/abc-5-jerusalem-chronicle/ (opens in a new tab)
  102. 102Livius.org (primary text), "ABC 7 (Nabonidus Chronicle)", after Grayson 1975https://www.livius.org/sources/content/mesopotamian-chronicles-content/abc-7-nabonidus-chronicle/ (opens in a new tab)
  103. 103ANET pp. 320 to 321 (W. F. Albright, Palestinian inscriptions), course reading, University of Michiganhttps://courses.lsa.umich.edu/israel-palestine/wp-content/uploads/sites/142/2013/12/028.-ANET-320-321.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  104. 104S. Faigenbaum-Golovin et al., "Algorithmic handwriting analysis of Judah's military correspondence sheds light on composition of biblical texts", PNAS 113.17 (2016) 4664 to 4669, PubMed Centralhttps://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4855551/ (opens in a new tab)
  105. 105G. M. Grena, "Do Hundreds of Lachish Letters Await Publication?", The Bible and Interpretation (University of Arizona), July 2012https://bibleinterp.arizona.edu/articles/gre368003 (opens in a new tab)
  106. 106Staatliche Museen zu Berlin, ERC Project ELEPHANTINE database, Pap. Berlin P. 13495 (TAD A4.7)https://elephantine.smb.museum/objects/object.php?o=100282 (opens in a new tab)
  107. 107Tacitus, Annals 15 (second part), Loeb Classical Library 1937, on LacusCurtiushttps://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Tacitus/Annals/15B*.html (opens in a new tab)
  108. 108Acts 18 with NABRE notes, USCCBhttps://bible.usccb.org/bible/acts/18 (opens in a new tab)
  109. 109James H. Oliver, "The Epistle of Claudius which Mentions the Proconsul Junius Gallio", Hesperia, American School of Classical Studies at Athenshttps://www.ascsa.edu.gr/uploads/media/hesperia/147635.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  110. 110Ryan C. Hanley, review of The Sacred Bridge (2nd ed.), Journal of Biblical and Theological Studies, 2018https://jbtsonline.org/?p=967 (opens in a new tab)
  111. 111Carta Jerusalem, Our Global Markethttps://carta-jerusalem.com/our-global-market/ (opens in a new tab)
  112. 112Accordance Bible Software, The Carta Collectionhttps://www.accordancebible.com/article/the-carta-collection/ (opens in a new tab)
  113. 113Universidad Loyola, catalogue record, Oxford Bible Atlas, ed. May, OUP 1962https://colectivo.uloyola.es/Record/T150641 (opens in a new tab)
  114. 114University of Southern Indiana Library, catalogue record, Oxford Bible Atlas, 4th ed., ed. Curtis, OUP 2007https://library.usi.edu/record/365136 (opens in a new tab)
  115. 115Princeton University Press, Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World (Talbert), 2000https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691031699/barrington-atlas-of-the-greek-and-roman-world (opens in a new tab)
  116. 116Biblical Archaeology Review 18:6 (1992), Books in Brief: Dorsey, Roads and Highways of Ancient Israelhttps://old.biblicalarchaeology.org/node/121305 (opens in a new tab)
  117. 117HathiTrust catalogue record, A. R. Millard, The Eponyms of the Assyrian Empire 910 to 612 BC, Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project, Helsinki, 1994https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/002900898/Cite (opens in a new tab)
  118. 118Van Seters, J., review of M. B. Moore and B. E. Kelle, Biblical History and Israel's Past, Journal of Hebrew Scriptures 12, 2012https://jhsonline.org/index.php/jhs/article/download/20694/15789?inline=1 (opens in a new tab)
  119. 119OpenBible.info (Stephen Smith), Bible-Geocoding-Data, GitHubhttps://github.com/openbibleinfo/Bible-Geocoding-Data (opens in a new tab)
  120. 120Biblical Archaeology Review, "Milestones: Philip R. Davies (1945 to 2018)", 2018https://library.biblicalarchaeology.org/department/milestones-philip-r-davies-1945-2018/ (opens in a new tab)
  121. 121Rodger C. Young, "Tables of Reign Lengths from the Hebrew Court Recorders", Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 48/2, 2005https://www.rcyoung.org/articles/rtables.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  122. 122Biblical Archaeology Society Library, "Endnote 2: How We Know When Solomon Ruled"https://library.biblicalarchaeology.org/endnote/endnote-2-how-we-know-when-solomon-ruled/ (opens in a new tab)
  123. 123Leslie McFall, "Some Missing Coregencies in Thiele's Chronology", Andrews University Seminary Studies 30/1, 1992https://www.andrews.edu/library/car/cardigital/Periodicals/AUSS/1992-1/1992-1-03.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  124. 124Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft (from Martin Rösel, Bibelkunde des Alten Testaments, 2021), "Richterzeit und Entstehung des Königtums"https://www.die-bibel.de/ressourcen/bibelkunde/themenkapitel-at/richterzeit-und-koenigtum (opens in a new tab)
  125. 125Posen Library of Jewish Culture and Civilization, "The Geography of the Hebrew Bible: Where Did Ancient Israelites Live?" (Vol. 1 introduction excerpt)https://posenlibrary.com/node/9411 (opens in a new tab)
  126. 126George Adam Smith, "The Historical Geography of the Holy Land, II. The Low Hills or Shephelah," The Expositor, 4th series, vol. 5https://gospelstudies.org.uk/biblicalstudies/pdf/expositor/series4/05-189.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  127. 127Jewish Virtual Library, "Ancient Jewish History: The Via Maris"https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/ViaMaris.html (opens in a new tab)
  128. 128Latin Vulgate, Isaiah 9, vulgate.orghttps://vulgate.org/ot/isaiah_9.htm (opens in a new tab)
  129. 129Yigal Levin, post to b-hebrew list, 11 February 2010, ibibliohttps://lists.ibiblio.org/sympa/arc/b-hebrew/2010-02/msg00143.html (opens in a new tab)
  130. 130Bryant G. Wood, "The Biblical Date for the Exodus Is 1446 BC: A Response to James Hoffmeier," JETS 50/2 (2007), Galaxiehttps://www.galaxie.com/article/jets50-2-02 (opens in a new tab)
  131. 131James K. Hoffmeier, "What Is the Biblical Date for the Exodus? A Response to Bryant Wood," JETS 50/2 (2007), Galaxiehttps://www.galaxie.com/article/jets50-2-01 (opens in a new tab)
  132. 132Flavius Josephus, Against Apion, Book 1, tr. W. Whiston, CCELhttps://www.ccel.org/j/josephus/works/apion-1.htm (opens in a new tab)
  133. 133Center for Online Judaic Studies, Stelae and Reliefs of Pharaoh Merneptah, c. 1207 BCE, cojs.orghttps://cojs.org/Stelae_and_Reliefs_of_Pharaoh_Merneptah-_c-_1207_BCE/ (opens in a new tab)
  134. 134egypt-museum.com (independent site, not the Egyptian Museum's own), Victory Stele of Merneptahhttps://egypt-museum.com/victory-stele-of-merneptah/ (opens in a new tab)
  135. 135Encyclopedia of The Bible, Mount Sinai, Bible Gatewayhttps://biblegateway.com/resources/encyclopedia-of-the-bible/Mount-Sinai (opens in a new tab)
  136. 136OpenBible.info, Bible-Geocoding-Data, data/ancient.jsonl (downloaded and parsed; not read by WebFetch)https://raw.githubusercontent.com/openbibleinfo/Bible-Geocoding-Data/main/data/ancient.jsonl (opens in a new tab)
  137. 137Emmanuel Anati, Where Is Mount Sinai?, The Bible and Interpretation (University of Arizona), 2003https://bibleinterp.arizona.edu/node/3557 (opens in a new tab)
  138. 138Luke 3 with NABRE notes, USCCBhttps://bible.usccb.org/bible/luke/3 (opens in a new tab)
  139. 139Guillermo Gonzalez, "Reevaluating the Visibility of the April 3, AD 33, Lunar Eclipse from Jerusalem", Bibliotheca Sacra 179 (2022), Galaxie abstract pagehttps://www.galaxie.com/article/bsac179-713-03 (opens in a new tab)
  140. 140Genesis 2:10 to 14, JPS Tanakh Gender-Sensitive Edition, Sefariahttps://www.sefaria.org/api/texts/Genesis.2.10-14?context=0 (opens in a new tab)
  141. 141Candida Moss, "Was the Garden of Eden a Real Place? Here's What Archaeologists Think", National Geographic, 2025https://nationalgeographic.com/history/article/where-is-garden-of-eden-location (opens in a new tab)
  142. 142Dora Jane Hamblin, "Has the Garden of Eden been located at last?", Smithsonian 18:2, May 1987 (reprint on L. Dolphin's site)https://www.ldolphin.org/eden/ (opens in a new tab)
  143. 143Ángel Manuel Rodríguez, "Eden and the Israelite Sanctuary", Biblical Research Institutehttps://adventistbiblicalresearch.org/articles/eden-and-the-israelite-sanctuary (opens in a new tab)
  144. 144G. K. Beale, "Eden, the Temple, and the Church's Mission in the New Creation", JETS 48/1, 2005https://www.etsjets.org/files/JETS-PDFs/48/48-1/48-1-pp005-031_JETS.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  145. 145German Archaeological Institute (Zenon catalogue), record for T. Stordalen, Echoes of Eden, Peeters, 2000https://zenon.dainst.org/Record/000052278 (opens in a new tab)
  146. 146Charles William Miller, review of Stordalen, Echoes of Eden, Journal of Hebrew Scriptureshttps://jhsonline.org/index.php/jhs/article/download/5908/4961?inline=1 (opens in a new tab)

Page record

Reviewed and approved by Duane Herholdt, BA (Theology), Chief Executive Officer, Numa Verse

Study version: v1.1, 1 November 2026 (theology map v1.27)

Last reviewed: 7 November 2026

How these pages are made

  • 7 November 2026: First draft from the approved assessment v1.1.