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Historical theologyHow did belief develop?

History of doctrine, with creeds and confessions

What is history of doctrine, with creeds and confessions?

History of doctrine is the study of when each Christian doctrine was defined, by whom and in which text, from the rule of faith to the agreements of today, and of which churches hold each definition now. It took shape in German Protestant scholarship as the history of dogma; English-speaking scholars came to prefer the name history of doctrine.

  • 171Sources
  • 18Traditions
  • 16Dated entries
  • 16Minutes

Study v1.1, 30 October 2026

History of doctrine, with creeds and confessions

At a glance

Why it matters for reading Scripture

How each doctrine developed, through the creeds and confessions that fixed it.

What the study found

Most churches confess the faith of Nicaea but receive two, three, seven or twenty-one councils, and fix their teaching in different texts: creeds, definitions, confessions, catechisms or statements of belief.

Where traditions divide

They divide on Chalcedon and the Filioque, on whether councils or Scripture alone bind, on how doctrine develops, and on whether a church should confess creeds at all.

How the traditions compare

  • Church of the East

    Receives two councils, Nicaea and Constantinople I, and received the creed and canons of Nicaea at a synod held at Seleucia-Ctesiphon in 410 under Catholicos Isaac.

    In Sebastian Brock's account of its synods, the Council of Ephesus (431) is specifically rejected. The church states its Christology in its own East Syriac terms, two qnome in one parsopa, and rejects the label "Nestorian" applied to it by others.

    Sources1–4

  • Oriental Orthodox churches

    The Coptic, Syriac, Armenian, Ethiopian and Malankara churches accept three councils only, Nicaea, Constantinople and Ephesus, and do not receive Chalcedon (451).

    They hold to Cyril's formula of "one nature of the Word of God Incarnate" and confess Christ truly God and truly man; Chalcedonian writers called them "Monophysites", while they describe themselves as Oriental Orthodox.

    Sources5–8

  • Eastern Orthodox Church

    Receives seven councils, from Nicaea (325) to Nicaea II (787), holds the canons of the Council in Trullo at the same level of authority, and confesses the creed of 381 without "and the Son".

    The Holy and Great Council of Crete (2016) names the council of 879 to 880 and the Palamite councils among the later councils of universal authority, and some Orthodox voices argue that they should be counted as the eighth and ninth. Vladimir Lossky, as Kallistos Ware quotes him, defined Tradition as "the life of the Holy Spirit in the Church", and Orthodox theologians differ on whether "development of doctrine" is the right name for change in its expression.

    Sources9–16

  • Roman Catholic Church

    Counts twenty-one ecumenical councils, with Constantinople IV (869 to 870) as the eighth, and holds that a council is never ecumenical unless it is "confirmed or at least accepted as such by the successor of Peter".

    The First Vatican Council holds that the sense of a dogma once declared is kept for ever while understanding of it grows, and John Paul II called the Catechism of 1992 "a sure norm for teaching the faith".

    Sources17–21

  • Old Catholic churches

    The Declaration of Utrecht (24 September 1889) adopts the Vincentian rule and the faith of the undivided Church of the first millennium.

    It rejects the Vatican decrees of 1870 on papal infallibility and the universal episcopate and the 1854 dogma of the Immaculate Conception. At Bonn in 1875 Old Catholic, Orthodox and Anglican theologians judged the insertion of "and the Son" irregular and agreed that the Spirit proceeds from the Father through the Son.

    Sources22–23

  • Lutheran churches

    Receive the doctrine of the early councils as Scriptural without listing the councils, and confess the three ecumenical creeds and the Book of Concord (1580).

    The Formula of Concord makes the Scriptures alone the "only rule and norm" and the symbols "only a testimony and declaration of the faith". The Lutheran Church Missouri Synod subscribes the Confessions because they agree with the Bible, not merely in so far as they do, while the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America accepts the Augsburg Confession "as a true witness to the Gospel" and the other books as further valid interpretations.

    Sources24–29

  • Reformed churches

    Calvin and the Second Helvetic Confession receive the first four councils, Nicaea, Constantinople, Ephesus and Chalcedon, as agreeing with Scripture.

    The Westminster Confession (1647) names "the Holy Spirit speaking in the Scripture" as supreme judge and holds that all synods and councils "may err; and many have erred". Reformed churches hold their confessions in different collections, from the Three Forms of Unity to the Book of Confessions of the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.).

    Sources30–35

  • Anglican Communion

    Article 21 of the Articles of Religion holds that general councils "may err and sometime have erred", and Article 8 receives the Nicene, Athanasian and Apostles' Creeds because they may be proved from Scripture.

    The Bethel Agreed Statement of 2022 records among Anglicans a broad consensus in favor of the first four councils and a respect for six and sometimes seven, with no number officially set. The Church of England bears witness to the faith in its historic formularies, the Thirty-nine Articles, the Book of Common Prayer and the Ordinal.

    Sources536–37

  • Liberal Protestant historiography

    Adolf von Harnack read dogma "in its conception and development" as "a work of the Greek spirit on the soil of the Gospel", a construction which historical criticism can separate from the Gospel.

    On this account development is a matter for critical history rather than for confidence in continuity.

    Sources38–39

  • Anabaptist churches

    From the Schleitheim Confession (1527) to the Mennonite Confession of Faith of 1995 the same positions recur: believers' baptism, the ban, separation from the world, and refusal of the oath and of the sword.

    The Amish affirm the eighteen articles of the Dordrecht Confession (1632), and the Hutterites hold the confession of Peter Riedemann.

    Sources40–44

  • Baptist churches

    Describe their documents as confessions rather than creeds: the 1925 statement, kept in the 2000 report, calls them "only guides in interpretation, having no authority over the conscience", while the 2000 preamble calls them "instruments of doctrinal accountability".

    The Second London Confession (1677, endorsed 1689) became the standard of Calvinistic Baptists, and the Southern Baptist Convention holds the Baptist Faith and Message of 2000, amended in 2023.

    Sources45–48

  • Methodist churches

    Hold the Articles of Religion, Wesley's abridgment of the Thirty-nine Articles adopted at the Christmas Conference of 1784, with the General Rules and Wesley's Sermons and Notes.

    In the United Methodist Church the First Restrictive Rule forbids the General Conference to "revoke, alter, or change our Articles of Religion", and the Confession of Faith of the Evangelical United Brethren stands beside them.

    Sources49–54

  • Pentecostal churches

    The Assemblies of God (USA) adopted its Statement of Fundamental Truths in 1916; the original preamble called it "not intended as a creed for the Church", while the current text calls it "a basis of fellowship among us".

    Oneness Pentecostals deny the Trinity: the United Pentecostal Church International confesses one God who has revealed himself as Father, through his Son in redemption, and as the Holy Spirit by emanation.

    Sources55–59

  • Seventh-day Adventist Church

    Accepts the Bible as its only creed while holding 28 Fundamental Beliefs, which a General Conference Session may revise.

    Of the historical statements only the 1980 text of 27 beliefs was voted by a Session; the 2005 Session added a 28th, and the 2015 Session revised the wording.

    Sources60–61

  • Stone-Campbell churches

    Thomas Campbell's Declaration and Address (1809) holds that "nothing ought to be inculcated upon Christians as articles of faith" unless Scripture expressly teaches it, and early Disciples, following Alexander Campbell, rejected creeds as tests of fellowship.

    The Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) confesses Jesus as the Christ in the Preamble to its Design, which it says is not a "test of fellowship", while the Churches of Christ have no central body whose own statement can be cited.

    Sources62–65

  • Religious Society of Friends

    Arose in mid-seventeenth-century England "without creeds, clergy, or other ecclesiastical forms", in Britannica's words.

    Friends state belief in texts of their own, from Barclay's fifteen Theological Theses (1675) and the Richmond Declaration of Faith (1887) to the yearly meetings' books of discipline, and Britain Yearly Meeting explains the objection to creeds as a refusal of enforced conformity.

    Sources66–70

  • Jehovah's Witnesses

    State belief through the publications of the Governing Body rather than through a creed.

    They hold that there is "no Scriptural basis for the Trinity doctrine" and that Jesus "is not Almighty God".

    Sources71–72

  • Latter-day Saints

    The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints does not accept "the creeds, confessions, and formulations of post-New Testament Christianity", and teaches that "the members of the Godhead are three separate beings".

    Doctrine resides in the standard works, official declarations and the Articles of Faith; the Community of Christ, which descends from the same church of 1830, affirms the Trinity.

    Sources73–76

How the field developed

  1. Early church
    c. 180

    Irenaeus, in Against Heresies, which Schaff dates about 180, gives the rule of faith that the Church "has received from the apostles" in three forms, none identical. The rule was fixed in content and threefold in shape, but not in wording.7778

  2. Late antiquity
    325

    The First Council of Nicaea, called by Constantine I, condemns Arius, who taught that the Son was not truly God, and inserts into its creed the term homoousios, "of one substance". Its opening is 20 May in some sources and 19 June in Tanner's edition.798081

  3. Late antiquity
    381

    The First Council of Constantinople, summoned by Gratian and Theodosius I, confirms the Nicene faith and anathematizes the Pneumatomachi; the question of the Holy Spirit is what most clearly distinguishes it from 325. The creed now associated with it is first named as "the faith of the 150 fathers" at Chalcedon in 451.828384

  4. Late antiquity
    451

    The Council of Chalcedon confesses one Christ "in two natures, unconfusedly, immutably, indivisibly, inseparably", weaving parts of Leo's Tome into its definition. Many in Palestine, Syria, Armenia and Egypt refuse the definition, and the churches now called Oriental Orthodox accept three councils only.8586875

  5. Late antiquity
    589

    At the Third Council of Toledo, King Reccared's profession contains what the common tradition takes as the first credal use of the Filioque, "and the Son". Shawn Smith (2014) argues from the manuscripts that the insertion into the creed first appears at the Eighth Council of Toledo in 653.888990

  6. Medieval
    787

    The Second Council of Nicaea, convened by the Empress Irene, distinguishes the "salutation and respectful veneration" given to images from the full adoration that belongs to the divine nature alone. The Frankish Synod of Frankfurt (794) rejects the council, whose decrees are gradually accepted in the West in later centuries.919293

  7. Medieval
    1014

    Benedict VIII inserts "and the Son" into the Latin creed, which is first sung with the Filioque at a papal Mass at the synod that follows Henry II's imperial coronation. In 809 Leo III had approved the teaching but disapproved its insertion in the creed.949089

  8. Medieval
    16 July 1054

    Papal legates lay a bull of excommunication against Patriarch Michael Cerularius on the altar of Hagia Sophia, citing among his errors the omission of the Filioque from the creed. Paul VI and Athenagoras I commit the sentences to oblivion on 7 December 1965, an act that does not of itself restore communion.95969798

  9. Medieval
    1215

    The Fourth Lateran Council confesses in its first constitution that the bread and wine are changed in substance into Christ's body and blood, in the Latin "transubstantiatis". Its twenty-first constitution requires the faithful to confess their sins "at least once a year".99100

  10. Medieval
    6 July 1439

    The Council of Florence's decree of union with the Greeks, Laetentur caeli, brings together the procession of the Spirit from Father and Son "as from one principle", purgatory and Roman primacy, and Mark of Ephesus alone of the Orthodox delegation refuses to sign. A synod at Constantinople under Patriarch Symeon denounces the council in 1484.101102103

  11. Reformation
    25 June 1530

    The Augsburg Confession, drafted by Philip Melanchthon with Luther's approval, is read at the Diet of Augsburg, with 21 doctrinal articles and 7 on abuses. Fifty years to the day later the Book of Concord gathers the Lutheran confessions into one collection.10426

  12. Reformation
    1545 to 1563

    The Council of Trent receives Scripture and tradition "with an equal affection of piety and reverence", fixes the canon and the seven sacraments, and defines justification and transubstantiation. Pius IV confirms its decrees on 26 January 1564.105106107108109

  13. Modern
    16 March 1672

    The Synod of Jerusalem, convened by Patriarch Dositheus, answers the Confession of Cyril Lucaris in eighteen decrees, teaching seven sacraments and using the term "transubstantiated" for the Eucharistic change. With Peter Mogila's Orthodox Confession, approved by a synod of the Ecumenical Patriarchate on 11 March 1643, it is held among the Orthodox symbolic books with what Heith-Stade calls "a certain ambivalence".110111112113

  14. Modern
    1845

    John Henry Newman's An Essay on the Development of Christian Doctrine proposes seven notes by which to tell a genuine development from a corruption. Newman is received into the Roman Catholic Church on 9 October 1845 and publishes the Essay less than two months later.114115116

  15. Modern
    1870

    The First Vatican Council issues Dei Filius on 24 April and Pastor aeternus on 18 July, which defines that the Roman Pontiff is infallible when he speaks ex cathedra. The bishops who would not receive the Vatican decrees set out their own position in the Declaration of Utrecht of 1889.2011722

  16. Modern
    31 October 1999

    The Lutheran World Federation and the Catholic Church confirm the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification at Augsburg, which states a consensus in basic truths of justification. The World Methodist Council associates itself with it in 2006 and the World Communion of Reformed Churches in 2017, while the Lutheran Church Missouri Synod stands apart.118119120121

How to study history of doctrine, with creeds and confessions

The questions it asks

  • When, where and by what body was each doctrine first given a defining formulation, and which later councils, synods and confessions defined it further?
  • Of each council: when and where did it meet, which emperor called it, who presided, what was in dispute, what did it decide, and how was it received?
  • Which churches hold each definition today, and how strictly do they hold it?
  • How do the churches account for change in doctrine: as growth in understanding of a dogma whose sense is fixed, as formulation normed by Scripture, or as the one faith newly expressed in the life of the Church?20122123
  • What makes a definition binding, and for whom?
  • What is doctrine, and how should its history be read?124125

Its method

Start

  1. Read the texts themselves first: council decrees and canons, and the creeds and confessions in collections such as Schaff's Creeds of Christendom and the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, with reference works and secondary studies after them126127.

  2. Fix for each text its date, place, authors, occasion and issuing body; where the sources give different dates, give both with their sources.

  3. Tell the kinds of text apart: a creed is a brief affirmation for worship or initiation, a confession a longer systematic declaration, and a catechism a manual of instruction128129.

  4. Describe each church from its own councils, confessions and official texts and in its own terms, not by labels that others have applied to it84.

  5. Say whose count of councils is followed, since each family's count follows its own history15.

  6. Keep apart whether a church affirms a doctrine and whether it formally receives the council or text that defined it.

  7. Record silence in a church's texts as silence, never as denial.

  8. Record how each church received an agreed statement: the statements of the Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Joint Commission, for example, are agreements of the commission, not acts of the churches130131.

What to read

Its primary witnesses

  • The rule of faith in Irenaeus, Tertullian, Origen and Hippolytus77132133134.
  • The baptismal questions of the Apostolic Tradition, whose author and date are disputed135136.
  • The local creeds of Jerusalem and Caesarea, and the Old Roman Creed as Marcellus of Ancyra and Rufinus preserve it137138139140.
  • The Creed of Nicaea (325), the creed associated with Constantinople (381) and the Definition of Chalcedon (451)14114285.
  • The decrees and canons of the councils, in Tanner's edition, and Trent in Waterworth's translation of 184880143.
  • The Lutheran Book of Concord (1580) and the Reformed confessions, from Zwingli's Sixty-seven Articles (1523) to the Westminster Standards2614432.
  • The Orthodox confessions of Peter Mogila and Dositheus and Philaret's Longer Catechism145110146.
  • Modern definitions and agreed statements, from Pastor aeternus (1870) to the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification (1999)117118.
  • The founding texts of churches that confess no creed, such as the Last Will and Testament of the Springfield Presbytery (1804) and the Richmond Declaration of Faith (1887)6268.

Standard reference works

  • Philip Schaff, Creeds of Christendom (1877), texts and terms for the study of the churches' symbols126147.
  • The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Second Series, volume 14, The Seven Ecumenical Councils (1900)127.
  • Norman P. Tanner's edition of the Decrees of the Ecumenical Councils80.
  • Jaroslav Pelikan and Valerie R. Hotchkiss, Creeds and Confessions of Faith in the Christian Tradition (Yale, 2003), with Credo as its first volume148149.
  • Jaroslav Pelikan, The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine, five volumes (1971 to 1989)150151.
  • J. N. D. Kelly, Early Christian Creeds and Early Christian Doctrines (1958)152153.
  • Adolf von Harnack, Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte, in English History of Dogma (seven volumes, 1895 to 1900)154155.
  • Johann Adam Möhler, Symbolik (1832), the classic Catholic work of comparative symbolics156.
  • Owen Chadwick, From Bossuet to Newman (1957), the standard history of the idea of doctrinal development157158.
  • John Karmiris, The Dogmatic and Symbolic Monuments of the Orthodox Church (1952 to 1953), the standard Orthodox source collection159.

Scholarship referenced in this study

The works below shaped the field and are cited in this study, from the earliest to the most recent. Hover over a book, or select it, to see its author and the sources behind it.

  • 1832SymbolikJohann Adam MöhlerSymbolik (1832)Johann Adam MöhlerSources156
  • 1845An Essay on the Development of Christian DoctrineJohn Henry NewmanAn Essay on the Development of Christian Doctrine (1845)John Henry NewmanSources115–116
  • 1877Creeds of ChristendomPhilip SchaffCreeds of Christendom (1877)Philip SchaffSources126147
  • 1886 to 1889, or 1886 to 1890Lehrbuch der DogmengeschichteAdolf von HarnackLehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte (1886 to 1889, or 1886 to 1890)Adolf von Harnack (7 May 1851 to 10 June 1930)Sources39154
  • 1889Leitfaden zum Studium der DogmengeschichteFriedrich LoofsLeitfaden zum Studium der Dogmengeschichte (1889)Friedrich Loofs (19 June 1858 to 13 January 1928)Sources160
  • 1910History of DogmasJoseph TixerontHistory of Dogmas (1910)Joseph Tixeront (1856 to 1925)Sources161
  • 1957From Bossuet to NewmanOwen ChadwickFrom Bossuet to Newman (1957)Owen ChadwickSources157
  • 1958Early Christian DoctrinesJ. N. D. KellyEarly Christian Doctrines (1958)J. N. D. KellySources153
  • 1971 to 1989The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of DoctrineJaroslav PelikanThe Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine (1971 to 1989)Jaroslav Pelikan (17 December 1923 to 13 May 2006)Sources150–151
  • 1984The Nature of Doctrine: Religion and Theology in a Postliberal AgeGeorge A. LindbeckThe Nature of Doctrine: Religion and Theology in a Postliberal Age (1984)George A. LindbeckSources124
  • 2001The Way to NicaeaJohn BehrThe Way to Nicaea (2001)John BehrSources162
  • 2004Nicaea and its LegacyLewis AyresNicaea and its Legacy (2004)Lewis AyresSources163

Listed because this study draws on their published work; no association with or endorsement of Numa Verse is implied. Suggest a correction.

Key terms

The words that carry the most weight in this field, each defined from the sources of this study. Turn a card over to read its definition.

In modern Catholic usage, a teaching in which the Church proposes a revealed truth definitively, binding on the universal Church164; Harnack used the word for the doctrines of the faith logically formulated for scientific and apologetic purposes38.

The wider term: in Jaroslav Pelikan's definition, what the church "believes, teaches, and confesses" on the basis of the word of God151; George Lindbeck called church doctrines "communally authoritative rules of discourse, attitude and action"124.

The summary of the faith used by ante-Nicene writers such as Irenaeus and Tertullian, kanon tes pisteos or regula fidei, fixed in content but not in wording14777132.

In the strict sense, "a brief affirmation of faith employed in public worship or initiation rites"128; Schaff defined it as "a confession of faith for public use"147.

In Britannica's words, "a longer, more detailed, and systematic doctrinal declaration", chiefly a Christian development from the Reformation to the present128.

In Britannica's words, "a manual of religious instruction usually arranged in the form of questions and answers"; the term appears to have been first used for written handbooks in the sixteenth century129.

The historic name for both creeds and confessions; Schaff explains the word as "a mark, badge, watchword, test", and says Cyprian was the first to use symbolum in a theological sense128147.

Schaff's terms for the Protestant principle: Scripture is the norming norm and the confession the normed norm, "not co-ordinate with, but always subordinate to, the Bible"122.

The non-scriptural term, glossed "of one substance", that the Council of Nicaea inserted into its creed to affirm the Son's full equality with the Father79.

The words "and the Son" added in the West to the creed of 381, which says that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father; the Eastern churches reject the addition8489.

Where it sits

Builds on

History of doctrine, with creeds and confessions

Questions people ask

It depends on the church: the Church of the East receives two councils, the Oriental Orthodox three, the Eastern Orthodox seven and the Catholic Church twenty-one15918. Lutherans, Reformed and Anglicans receive the early councils as agreeing with Scripture, the Reformed texts naming four and Anglicans showing a broad consensus on four and a respect for six and sometimes seven315.

No: the story that each apostle contributed a clause is first set out by Rufinus, and Thurston, in the Catholic Encyclopedia of 1907, calls his account unhistorical140165. The creed grew from the Old Roman Creed, attested in Greek by about 341, and its received text is first attested in full in the eighth century, in the work of Pirminius139166. At the Council of Florence in 1438 Mark of Ephesus said "we neither have nor know a creed of the apostles"167.

The creed of 381 says that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father; the words "and the Son" first appear in Spain and were inserted into the Latin creed in 10148994. The Orthodox Church in America calls the addition "a doctrinal addition unacceptable to Orthodoxy", and the objection runs on two lines: it was made without an ecumenical council, and it obscures the Father as sole source16890. The Catholic Church keeps the clause in the Latin creed while the Greek text of 381 remains the normative form, and its Catechism calls the two formulas a "legitimate complementarity"169170.

No: early Disciples rejected creeds as tests of fellowship, the Friends arose without creeds, and Baptists call their statements confessions, "only guides in interpretation"636645. Non-creedal does not mean without authoritative teaching, since each such church states its belief in texts of its own6965. Jehovah's Witnesses and Latter-day Saints state their belief through their own teaching and reject the historic creeds7273.

The churches answer differently. Vincent of Lérins allowed progress "in the same doctrine, in the same sense, and in the same meaning" but not alteration, and Newman proposed seven notes of genuine development171114. The First Vatican Council holds that the sense of a dogma once declared is kept for ever while understanding of it grows, Lutheran and Reformed confessions place every later formulation under Scripture, and Orthodox writers speak of the one faith newly expressed in the life of the Church202733123.

Contribute to history of doctrine, with creeds and confessions

Register to contribute

  1. 1The Assyrian Church of the East, The Eastern Christian Churches (CNEWA)https://cnewa.org/?p=113687 (opens in a new tab)
  2. 2About us (Holy Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East)https://www.assyrianchurch.org/about-us/ (opens in a new tab)
  3. 3The Christology of the Church of the East in the Synods of the Fifth to Early Seventh Centuries, Brock (gospelstudies.org.uk)https://www.gospelstudies.org.uk/biblicalstudies/pdf/aksum-thyatiera/aksum-thyateira_02-brock.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  4. 4Nestorianism (Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage, Beth Mardutho)https://gedsh.bethmardutho.org/Nestorianism (opens in a new tab)
  5. 5The Bethel Agreed Statement 2022: The Inheritance of Ecumenical Councils in the Church (Anglican Communion)https://anglicancommunion.org/media/493671/The-Inheritance-of-Ecumenical-Councils-28-October-final-text_AOOIC_021122.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  6. 6The Ecumenical Councils (Coptic Orthodox Church)https://copticorthodox.church/en/?p=73884 (opens in a new tab)
  7. 7Faith (Armenian Apostolic Church, Pontifical Legation of Western Europe)https://www.armenian-church.eu/en/faith/ (opens in a new tab)
  8. 8The Monophysites, The Orthodox Faith vol. 3 (Orthodox Church in America)https://www.oca.org/orthodoxy/the-orthodox-faith/church-history/fifth-century/the-monophysites (opens in a new tab)
  9. 9The Councils, The Orthodox Faith vol. 1 (Orthodox Church in America)https://www.oca.org/orthodoxy/the-orthodox-faith/doctrine-scripture/sources-of-christian-doctrine/the-councils (opens in a new tab)
  10. 10The Council of Trullo or the Quinisext Council, The Orthodox Faith vol. 3 (Orthodox Church in America)https://www.oca.org/orthodoxy/the-orthodox-faith/church-history/seventh-century/the-council-of-trullo-or-the-quinisext-council (opens in a new tab)
  11. 11The Divine Liturgy of Saint John Chrysostom (Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America)https://www.goarch.org/-/the-divine-liturgy-of-saint-john-chrysostom (opens in a new tab)
  12. 12Encyclical of the Holy and Great Council, Crete 2016 (Orthodox Academy of Crete)https://www.oac.gr/articlefiles/SYNODOS/Encyclical%20of%20the%20Holy%20and%20Great%20Council.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  13. 13Encyclical of the Holy and Great Council (holycouncil.org)https://www.holycouncil.org/-/encyclical-holy-council (opens in a new tab)
  14. 14Dr. David Ford addresses OTSA annual meeting (Orthodox Church in America)https://oca.org/news/headline-news/dr.-david-ford-addresses-otsa-annual-meeting (opens in a new tab)
  15. 15Strange Yet Familiar: My Journey to the Orthodox Church (Myriobiblos)https://myriobiblos.gr/texts/english/wear_journey2.html (opens in a new tab)
  16. 16The Orthodox Rejection of Doctrinal Development, Pro Ecclesia 20:4 (Academia.edu)https://www.academia.edu/1121332/_The_Orthodox_Rejection_of_Doctrinal_Development_ (opens in a new tab)
  17. 17General Councils (Catholic Encyclopedia, New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04423f.htm (opens in a new tab)
  18. 18Second Vatican Council (Encyclopaedia Britannica)https://www.britannica.com/event/Second-Vatican-Council (opens in a new tab)
  19. 19Lumen Gentium, 21 November 1964 (vatican.va)https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html (opens in a new tab)
  20. 20Dei Filius, 24 April 1870 (vatican.va)https://www.vatican.va/content/pius-ix/la/documents/constitutio-dogmatica-dei-filius-24-aprilis-1870.html (opens in a new tab)
  21. 21Apostolic Constitution Fidei depositum, 11 October 1992 (vatican.va)https://www.vatican.va/content/john-paul-ii/en/apost_constitutions/documents/hf_jp-ii_apc_19921011_fidei-depositum.html (opens in a new tab)
  22. 22The Declaration of Utrecht, 24 September 1889 (Union of Utrecht)https://www.utrechter-union.org/?p=1126 (opens in a new tab)
  23. 23The Old Catholic Agreement on the Filioque Controversy, A.D. 1875, Creeds of Christendom vol. 2 (CCEL)https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds2/creeds2.vii.ii.html (opens in a new tab)
  24. 24The Augsburg Confession, Creeds of Christendom vol. 3 (CCEL)https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds3.iii.ii.html (opens in a new tab)
  25. 25Preface to the Christian Book of Concord (bookofconcord.org)https://bookofconcord.org/preface/ (opens in a new tab)
  26. 26Book of Concord (Encyclopaedia Britannica)https://www.britannica.com/topic/Book-of-Concord (opens in a new tab)
  27. 27Formula of Concord, Epitome, Rule and Norm (Concordia Publishing House)https://bookofconcord.cph.org/en/formula-of-concord-epitome/summary (opens in a new tab)
  28. 28Book of Concord FAQs (The Lutheran Witness, LCMS)https://witness.lcms.org/?p=91917 (opens in a new tab)
  29. 29Constitutions, Bylaws, and Continuing Resolutions of the ELCA, April 2026 (Evangelical Lutheran Church in America)https://cdn.elca.org/cdn/wp-content/uploads/ELCAConstitutionsBylawsandContinuingResolutionsApr2026.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  30. 30Calvin, Institutes, Book IV, chapter 9, Of Councils and Their Authority (CCEL)https://ccel.org/ccel/calvin/institutes.vi.x.html (opens in a new tab)
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  33. 33Confession of Faith (Orthodox Presbyterian Church)https://opc.org/wcf.html (opens in a new tab)
  34. 34Three Forms of Unity (United Reformed Churches in North America)https://www.urcna.org/threeforms (opens in a new tab)
  35. 35Confessions (Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.))https://pcusa.org/confessions (opens in a new tab)
  36. 36Book of Common Prayer (1662), Articles of Religion (transcription by Lynda Howell)https://www.eskimo.com/~lhowell/bcp1662/articles/articles.html (opens in a new tab)
  37. 37Canons of the Church of England, Section C (Church of England)https://www.churchofengland.org/about/governance/legal-resources/canons-church-england/section-c (opens in a new tab)
  38. 38History of Dogma, vol. 1, Prolegomena (Harnack, CCEL)https://ccel.org/ccel/harnack/dogma1/dogma1.ii.ii.i.html (opens in a new tab)
  39. 39Adolf von Harnack (Encyclopaedia Britannica)https://www.britannica.com/biography/Adolf-von-Harnack (opens in a new tab)
  40. 40An Anabaptist Confession of Faith: The Schleitheim Articles (1527) (German History in Documents and Images)https://germanhistorydocs.org/en/from-the-reformations-to-the-thirty-years-war-1500-1648/an-anabaptist-confession-of-faith-the-schleitheim-articles-1527 (opens in a new tab)
  41. 41Dordrecht Confession of Faith (Baptist Center for Theology and Ministry, NOBTS)https://www.nobts.edu/baptist-center-theology/confessions/Dordrecht_Confession_of_Faith.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  42. 42Confession of Faith in a Mennonite Perspective (Mennonite Church USA)https://www.mennoniteusa.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/Confession-of-Faith-In-a-Mennonite-Perspective.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  43. 43Beliefs, Amish Studies (Young Center, Elizabethtown College)https://groups.etown.edu/amishstudies/?p=76 (opens in a new tab)
  44. 44Peter Riedemann's Hutterite Confession of Faith (Plough Publishing House)https://www.plough.com/books/peter-riedemanns-hutterite-confession-of-faith-en (opens in a new tab)
  45. 45Preamble (Southern Baptist Convention, bfm.sbc.net)https://bfm.sbc.net/preamble/ (opens in a new tab)
  46. 46The 1689 London Baptist Confession of Faith in its Historical and Theological Context, Renihan (CCEL)https://www.ccel.org/creeds/bcf/h&t.htm (opens in a new tab)
  47. 47Baptist Faith and Message 2000 (Southern Baptist Convention, bfm.sbc.net)https://bfm.sbc.net/bfm2000/ (opens in a new tab)
  48. 48Motion to clarify BFM passes, task forces approved (Baptist Press)https://www.baptistpress.com/resource-library/news/motion-to-clarify-bfm-passes-task-forces-approved/ (opens in a new tab)
  49. 49The Christmas Conference: 10 days that started a church (United Methodist Communications)https://www.umc.org/content/the-christmas-conference-10-days-that-started-a-church (opens in a new tab)
  50. 50Glossary: Articles of Religion (United Methodist Church)https://www.umc.org/content/glossary-articles-of-religion (opens in a new tab)
  51. 51The General Rules (Discipleship Ministries of the United Methodist Church)https://www.umcdiscipleship.org/resources/the-general-rules (opens in a new tab)
  52. 52What have John Wesley's sermons ever done for us? (Wesley House Cambridge)https://www.wesley.cam.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/10-wesley.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  53. 53Book of Discipline: Section III, Restrictive Rules (United Methodist Church)https://www.umc.org/content/book-of-discipline-section-iii-restrictive-rules (opens in a new tab)
  54. 54Doctrinal Standards in The United Methodist Church (United Methodist Church)https://www.umc.org/content/doctrinal-standards-in-the-united-methodist-church (opens in a new tab)
  55. 55Statement of Fundamental Truths centennial (AG News)https://news.ag.org/en/articles/news/2016/10/statement-of-fundamental-truths-centennial (opens in a new tab)
  56. 56Statement of Fundamental Truths Turns 100 (Daniel D. Isgrigg)https://danieldisgrigg.com/2016/10/07/statement-of-fundamental-truths-turns-100/ (opens in a new tab)
  57. 57Statement of Fundamental Truths (General Council of the Assemblies of God, creeds.net)https://www.creeds.net/Misc/AOGtruths.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  58. 58Our Beliefs (United Pentecostal Church International)https://www.upci.org/about/our-beliefs (opens in a new tab)
  59. 59About (United Pentecostal Church International)https://www.upci.org/about (opens in a new tab)
  60. 60Beliefs (Seventh-day Adventist Church)https://www.adventist.org/beliefs/ (opens in a new tab)
  61. 61History of the 28 Fundamental Beliefs (Adventist News Network)https://adventist.news/news/history-of-the-28-fundamental-beliefs (opens in a new tab)
  62. 62Declaration and Address and Last Will and Testament of the Springfield Presbytery, Bethany Press reprint (Disciples Council on Christian Unity)https://www.disciplescuim.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Campbell-Stone_Delaration-Last-Will_Bethany_1960.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  63. 63Disciples of Christ: Disciples in the 20th century (Encyclopaedia Britannica)https://britannica.com/topic/Disciples-of-Christ/Disciples-in-the-20th-century (opens in a new tab)
  64. 64Our Mission, Vision and Confession (Christian Church (Disciples of Christ))https://disciples.org/our-identity/our-mission-vision-and-confession/ (opens in a new tab)
  65. 65Restoration Movement (New Georgia Encyclopedia)https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/arts-culture/restoration-movement (opens in a new tab)
  66. 66Society of Friends (Encyclopaedia Britannica)https://www.britannica.com/topic/Society-of-Friends (opens in a new tab)
  67. 67The Confession of the Society of Friends, Creeds of Christendom vol. 3 (CCEL)https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds3.v.iv.html (opens in a new tab)
  68. 68Declaration of Faith, Richmond Conference 1887 (QuakerInfo.com)https://www.quakerinfo.com/rdf.shtml (opens in a new tab)
  69. 69Quaker faith & practice, chapter 1, Advices and queries (Britain Yearly Meeting)https://qfp.quaker.org.uk/chapter/1/ (opens in a new tab)
  70. 70Quaker faith & practice, chapter 27, Unity and diversity (Britain Yearly Meeting)https://qfp.quaker.org.uk/chapter/27/ (opens in a new tab)
  71. 71The Governing Body and Its Helpers (jw.org)https://www.jw.org/en/jehovahs-witnesses/faq/governing-body-jw-helpers/ (opens in a new tab)
  72. 72What Do Jehovah's Witnesses Believe? (jw.org)https://www.jw.org/en/jehovahs-witnesses/faq/jehovah-witness-beliefs/ (opens in a new tab)
  73. 73Are Latter-day Saints Christians? Gospel Topics Essays (Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints)https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/gospel-topics-essays/christians?lang=eng (opens in a new tab)
  74. 74Godhead, Gospel Topics (Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints)https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/gospel-topics/godhead?lang=eng (opens in a new tab)
  75. 75Approaching Mormon Doctrine (Church Newsroom)https://newsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org/article/approaching-mormon-doctrine (opens in a new tab)
  76. 76Basic Beliefs (Community of Christ)https://cofchrist.org/basic-beliefs/ (opens in a new tab)
  77. 77Irenaeus, A.D. 180, Creeds of Christendom vol. 2 (CCEL)https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds2/creeds2.iii.i.ii.html (opens in a new tab)
  78. 78Irenaeus, Against Heresies 1.10 (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103110.htm (opens in a new tab)
  79. 79First Council of Nicaea (Encyclopaedia Britannica)https://www.britannica.com/event/First-Council-of-Nicaea-325 (opens in a new tab)
  80. 80First Council of Nicaea 325, Decrees of the Ecumenical Councils, ed. Tanner (Papal Encyclicals Online)https://www.papalencyclicals.net/councils/ecum01.htm (opens in a new tab)
  81. 81The First Council of Nicaea (Catholic Encyclopedia, New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11044a.htm (opens in a new tab)
  82. 82First Council of Constantinople 381, ed. Tanner (Papal Encyclicals Online)https://www.papalencyclicals.net/councils/ecum02.htm (opens in a new tab)
  83. 83First Council of Constantinople (Catholic Encyclopedia, New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04308a.htm (opens in a new tab)
  84. 84Nicene Creed (Encyclopaedia Britannica)https://www.britannica.com/topic/Nicene-Creed (opens in a new tab)
  85. 85The Definition of Faith of the Council of Chalcedon, NPNF 2.14 (CCEL)https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214/npnf214.xi.xiii.html (opens in a new tab)
  86. 86The Fourth Ecumenical Council, The Orthodox Faith vol. 3 (Orthodox Church in America)https://www.oca.org/orthodoxy/the-orthodox-faith/church-history/fifth-century/the-fourth-ecumenical-council (opens in a new tab)
  87. 87Council of Chalcedon (Catholic Encyclopedia, New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03555a.htm (opens in a new tab)
  88. 88The Insertion of the Filioque into the Nicene Creed and a Letter of Isidore of Seville, Journal of Early Christian Studies (Crossref)https://api.crossref.org/works/10.1353/earl.2014.0026 (opens in a new tab)
  89. 89The Nicene Creed, Creeds of Christendom vol. 1 (CCEL)https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds1/creeds1.iv.iii.html (opens in a new tab)
  90. 90The Filioque: A Church-Dividing Issue? (USCCB)https://www.usccb.org/resources/filioque-a-church-dividing-issue.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  91. 91Second Council of Nicaea 787, ed. Tanner (Papal Encyclicals Online)https://www.papalencyclicals.net/councils/ecum07.htm (opens in a new tab)
  92. 92Iconoclasm (Catholic Encyclopedia, New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07620a.htm (opens in a new tab)
  93. 93Caroline Books (Libri Carolini) (Catholic Encyclopedia, New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03371b.htm (opens in a new tab)
  94. 94Apostolic Letter In unitate fidei, 23 November 2025 (vatican.va)https://www.vatican.va/content/leo-xiv/en/apost_letters/documents/20251123-in-unitate-fidei.html (opens in a new tab)
  95. 95Michael Caerularius (Catholic Encyclopedia, New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10273a.htm (opens in a new tab)
  96. 96Caerularios, Michael, Encyclopedia of Eastern Orthodox Christianity (azbyka.ru)https://azbyka.ru/otechnik/world/the-encyclopedia-of-eastern-orthodox-christianity/49 (opens in a new tab)
  97. 97Joint Catholic-Orthodox Declaration, 7 December 1965 (vatican.va)https://www.vatican.va/content/paul-vi/en/speeches/1965/documents/hf_p-vi_spe_19651207_common-declaration.html (opens in a new tab)
  98. 98The long road from the excommunication to the restoration of communion, Cardinal Kurt Koch (christianunity.va)https://www.christianunity.va/content/unitacristiani/en/cardinal-koch/2026/Conferenze/the-long-road-from-the-excommunication-to-the-restoration-of-com.html (opens in a new tab)
  99. 99Fourth Lateran Council (1215), Constitutions (Papal Encyclicals Online)https://www.papalencyclicals.net/councils/ecum12-2.htm (opens in a new tab)
  100. 100Transubstantiation, History of the Christian Church vol. 5 (CCEL)https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/hcc5.ii.xvi.iv.html (opens in a new tab)
  101. 101Ecumenical Council of Florence (1438-1445) (EWTN Library)https://www.ewtn.com/catholicism/library/ecumenical-council-of-florence-1438-1445-1461 (opens in a new tab)
  102. 102Marc Eugenikos saint (Encyclopaedia Universalis)https://www.universalis.fr/encyclopedie/marc-eugenikos/ (opens in a new tab)
  103. 103The Manner of Reception of Roman Catholic Converts into the Orthodox Church, Dragas (Myriobiblos)https://mail.myriobiblos.gr/texts/english/Dragas_RomanCatholic_2.html (opens in a new tab)
  104. 104The Augsburg Confession, 1530, Creeds of Christendom vol. 1 (CCEL)https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds1.viii.ii.html (opens in a new tab)
  105. 105Council of Trent (Catholic Encyclopedia, New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15030c.htm (opens in a new tab)
  106. 106Council of Trent, Fourth Session (Papal Encyclicals Online)https://www.papalencyclicals.net/councils/trent/fourth-session.htm (opens in a new tab)
  107. 107Council of Trent, Sixth Session (Papal Encyclicals Online)https://www.papalencyclicals.net/councils/trent/sixth-session.htm (opens in a new tab)
  108. 108Council of Trent, Seventh Session (Papal Encyclicals Online)https://www.papalencyclicals.net/councils/trent/seventh-session.htm (opens in a new tab)
  109. 109Council of Trent, Thirteenth Session (Papal Encyclicals Online)https://www.papalencyclicals.net/councils/trent/thirteenth-session.htm (opens in a new tab)
  110. 110The Synod of Jerusalem and the Confession of Dositheus, Creeds of Christendom vol. 1 (CCEL)https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds1.v.vii.html (opens in a new tab)
  111. 111Confession of Dositheus, Greek and Latin, Creeds of Christendom vol. 2 (CCEL)https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds2.vi.ii.html (opens in a new tab)
  112. 112Iasi (Jassy), Synod of (1642), Encyclopedia of Eastern Orthodox Christianity (azbyka.ru)https://azbyka.ru/otechnik/world/the-encyclopedia-of-eastern-orthodox-christianity/145 (opens in a new tab)
  113. 113Eastern Orthodox Ecclesiologies in the Era of Confessionalism, Theoforum (Academia.edu)https://www.academia.edu/1125117/Eastern_Orthodox_Ecclesiologies_in_the_Era_of_Confessionalism (opens in a new tab)
  114. 114An Essay on the Development of Christian Doctrine, chapter 5 (Newman Reader)https://www.newmanreader.org/works/development/chapter5.html (opens in a new tab)
  115. 115An Essay on the Development of Christian Doctrine, contents and front matter (Newman Reader)https://www.newmanreader.org/works/development/ (opens in a new tab)
  116. 116From Bossuet to Newman, Preface to the First Edition (Cambridge Core)https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/from-bossuet-to-newman/preface-to-the-first-edition/9BB7F913F345FDC340ADA8187EF48CDA (opens in a new tab)
  117. 117Pastor aeternus, 18 July 1870 (vatican.va)https://www.vatican.va/content/pius-ix/la/documents/constitutio-dogmatica-pastor-aeternus-18-iulii-1870.html (opens in a new tab)
  118. 118Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification, with Official Common Statement and Annex (Lutheran World Federation)https://lutheranworld.org/sites/default/files/2022-02/original_jddj_english.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  119. 119Statement of Association with the JDDJ, World Methodist Council (christianunity.va)https://www.christianunity.va/content/unitacristiani/en/dialoghi/sezione-occidentale/consiglio-metodista-mondiale/relazioni/en.html (opens in a new tab)
  120. 120News post, 5 July 2017 (World Communion of Reformed Churches)https://wcrc.ch/?p=14462 (opens in a new tab)
  121. 121The Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod and Lutheran-Roman Catholic Consensus (Crossings)https://crossings.org/the-lutheran-church-missouri-synod-and-lutheran-roman-catholic-consensus/ (opens in a new tab)
  122. 122Authority of Creeds, Creeds of Christendom vol. 1 (CCEL)https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds1.iii.iii.html (opens in a new tab)
  123. 123Does Dogma Develop? (OrthoChristian.com)https://orthochristian.com/47041.html (opens in a new tab)
  124. 124George Lindbeck (Boston Collaborative Encyclopedia of Modern Western Theology, Boston University)https://people.bu.edu/wwildman/bce/mwt_themes_862_lindbeck.htm (opens in a new tab)
  125. 125Doctrine's Duties (Christianity Today)https://christianitytoday.com/1991/06/doctrines-duties (opens in a new tab)
  126. 126Preface, Creeds of Christendom vol. 1 (CCEL)https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds1.ii.i.html (opens in a new tab)
  127. 127NPNF Second Series vol. 14, The Seven Ecumenical Councils, contents (CCEL)https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214/npnf214.toc.html (opens in a new tab)
  128. 128Creed (Encyclopaedia Britannica)https://www.britannica.com/topic/creed (opens in a new tab)
  129. 129Catechism (Encyclopaedia Britannica)https://www.britannica.com/topic/catechism (opens in a new tab)
  130. 130First and Second Agreed Statements, 1989 and 1990 (Trinity Orthodox)https://www.old.trinityorthodox.ca/sites/default/files/Agreed%20Statements-Orthodox-Oriental%20Orthodox%20Dialogue-1989-1990.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  131. 131Second Agreed Statement 1990 (Syriac Orthodox Patriarchate)https://dss-syriacpatriarchate.org/second-agreed-statement-1990/?lang=en (opens in a new tab)
  132. 132Tertullian, A.D. 200, Creeds of Christendom vol. 2 (CCEL)https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds2/creeds2.iii.i.iii.html (opens in a new tab)
  133. 133Origen, De Principiis, Preface (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/04120.htm (opens in a new tab)
  134. 134Hippolytus, Against Noetus (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0521.htm (opens in a new tab)
  135. 135The Apostolic Tradition of Hippolytus, trans. Easton (Project Gutenberg)https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/61614/pg61614-images.html (opens in a new tab)
  136. 136The Apostolic Tradition, Hermeneia (Fortress Press)https://www.fortresspress.com/store/product/9780800660468/The-Apostolic-Tradition (opens in a new tab)
  137. 137Cyril of Jerusalem, About A.D. 350, Creeds of Christendom vol. 2 (CCEL)https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds2/creeds2.iii.i.xi.html (opens in a new tab)
  138. 138Socrates Scholasticus, Church History 1.8 (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/26011.htm (opens in a new tab)
  139. 139The Old Roman and African Form of the Apostles' Creed, Creeds of Christendom vol. 2 (CCEL)https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds2/creeds2.iv.i.i.ii.html (opens in a new tab)
  140. 140Rufinus, Commentary on the Apostles' Creed (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2711.htm (opens in a new tab)
  141. 141The Nicene Creed, NPNF 2.14 (CCEL)https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214/npnf214.vii.iii.html (opens in a new tab)
  142. 142The Holy Creed Which the 150 Holy Fathers Set Forth, NPNF 2.14 (CCEL)https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214/npnf214.ix.iii.html (opens in a new tab)
  143. 143Council of Trent, index, Waterworth translation (Papal Encyclicals Online)https://www.papalencyclicals.net/councils/trent.htm (opens in a new tab)
  144. 144Zwinglian Confessions, Creeds of Christendom vol. 1 (CCEL)https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds1.ix.ii.i.html (opens in a new tab)
  145. 145The Orthodox Confession of Mogilas, Creeds of Christendom vol. 1 (CCEL)https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds1.v.vi.html (opens in a new tab)
  146. 146The Doctrinal Standards of the Russo-Greek Church, Creeds of Christendom vol. 1 (CCEL)https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds1.v.ix.html (opens in a new tab)
  147. 147Name and Definition, Creeds of Christendom vol. 1 (CCEL)https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds1.iii.i.html (opens in a new tab)
  148. 148Creeds and Confessions of Faith in the Christian Tradition (MnLINK catalogue)https://search.mnlink.org/Record/96440550-1b9a-4746-99c3-c8432ad715ad (opens in a new tab)
  149. 149Credo (Yale University Press)https://yalebooks.yale.edu/9780300109740/credo (opens in a new tab)
  150. 150The Christian Tradition 1: The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition (Université de Nantes catalogue)https://theses.univ-nantes.fr/vufind/Record/PPN003155978/Description (opens in a new tab)
  151. 151The Achievement of Jaroslav Pelikan (First Things)https://firstthings.com/the-achievement-of-jaroslav-pelikan/ (opens in a new tab)
  152. 152Early Christian Creeds (Routledge)https://www.routledge.com/Early-Christian-Creeds/Kelly/p/book/9780582492196 (opens in a new tab)
  153. 153Review of Kelly, Early Christian Doctrines (Journal of Ecclesiastical History, Cambridge Core)https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-ecclesiastical-history/article/abs/early-christian-doctrines-by-j-n-d-kelly-pp-xii-501-london-adam-charles-black-1958-30s/FB3957FF3BC9190D91BA3C6BF6B95668 (opens in a new tab)
  154. 154Harnack, Adolf (Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia, CCEL)https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc05/htm/iii.viii.x.htm (opens in a new tab)
  155. 155History of Dogma, vol. 1, title page (CCEL)https://ccel.org/ccel/harnack/dogma1/dogma1.i.html (opens in a new tab)
  156. 156Johann Adam Möhler (Catholic Encyclopedia, New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10430a.htm (opens in a new tab)
  157. 157From Bossuet to Newman, catalogue record (University of Pennsylvania Libraries)https://find.library.upenn.edu/catalog/999597653503681 (opens in a new tab)
  158. 158The Making of Christian Doctrine, chapter 1 (Cambridge Core)https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/making-of-christian-doctrine/development-of-doctrine-the-nature-of-the-problem/12C08AA2BFC4575E7CE70588A028606F (opens in a new tab)
  159. 159Karmiris, John N., The A to Z of the Orthodox Church (azbyka.ru)https://azbyka.ru/otechnik/world/the-a-to-z-of-the-orthodox-church/340 (opens in a new tab)
  160. 160Loofs, Friedrich (Deutsche Biographie, NDB)https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/117213381.html (opens in a new tab)
  161. 161Tixeront, History of dogmas, vol. 1 (Princeton Theological Seminary Theological Commons)https://commons.ptsem.edu/id/historyofdogmas01tixe (opens in a new tab)
  162. 162Review of John Behr, The Way to Nicaea, Journal of Early Christian Studies 10:3 (Project MUSE)https://muse.jhu.edu/article/10294/summary (opens in a new tab)
  163. 163Nicaea and Its Legacy, Lewis Ayres (Durham Research Online)https://durham-repository.worktribe.com/output/1123637 (opens in a new tab)
  164. 164The Interpretation of Dogma, 1989 (International Theological Commission, vatican.va)https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/cti_documents/rc_cti_1989_interpretazione-dogmi_en.html (opens in a new tab)
  165. 165Apostles' Creed (Catholic Encyclopedia, New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01629a.htm (opens in a new tab)
  166. 166The Apostles' Creed, Creeds of Christendom vol. 1 (CCEL)https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds1/creeds1.iv.ii.html (opens in a new tab)
  167. 167Harnack, The Apostles' Creed (CCEL)https://www.ccel.org/ccel/harnack/creed.ii.i.html (opens in a new tab)
  168. 168Holy Spirit, The Symbol of Faith, The Orthodox Faith vol. 1 (Orthodox Church in America)https://www.oca.org/orthodoxy/the-orthodox-faith/doctrine-scripture/the-symbol-of-faith/holy-spirit (opens in a new tab)
  169. 169The Greek and Latin Traditions regarding the Procession of the Holy Spirit (EWTN Library)https://www.ewtn.com/catholicism/library/greek-and-latin-traditions-regarding-the-procession-of-the-holy-spirit-29259 (opens in a new tab)
  170. 170Catechism of the Catholic Church, paragraphs 245 to 248 (vatican.va)https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P17.HTM (opens in a new tab)
  171. 171Vincent of Lérins, Commonitory, chapter 23, NPNF 2/11 (CCEL)https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf211.iii.xxiv.html (opens in a new tab)

Page record

Reviewed and approved by Duane Herholdt, BA (Theology), Chief Executive Officer, Numa Verse

Study version: v1.1, 30 October 2026 (theology map v1.27)

Last reviewed: 9 November 2026

How these pages are made

  • 9 November 2026: First draft from the approved assessment v1.1.