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Biblical and ancient languages

What is biblical and ancient languages?

Biblical and ancient languages is the study of the languages in which the Bible was first written, Hebrew, Aramaic and Koine Greek, and, in a wider sense, of its ancient translations and the languages of its surrounding cultures. That wider scope is not one discipline: Assyriology, Egyptology and Semitic studies overlap with biblical studies but are autonomous fields.

  • 138Sources
  • 8Traditions
  • 16Dated entries
  • 12Minutes

Study v2.2, 13 October 2026

Biblical and ancient languages

At a glance

Why it matters for reading Scripture

Scripture was written in Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek, so every reading starts from what the text says in its own languages.

What the study found

The Bible was written in Hebrew, Aramaic and Koine Greek; the field works in four tiers (text languages, ancient versions, context languages, methods), with base texts produced by a few long-running centres.

Where traditions divide

Translations divide on readings such as Isaiah 7:14 (virgin or young woman) and Psalm 22:16 (pierced or like a lion).

How the traditions compare

  • Medieval Jewish grammar and lexicography

    Judah ibn Quraysh, at Tiaret in the eighth to ninth century, produced the first comparative philology of Hebrew, Aramaic and Arabic.

    Saadia Gaon, who passed away at Sura on 16 May 942, wrote the Agron, the foundation of Hebrew lexicography, a Hebrew grammar and the Judaeo-Arabic Tafsir. Judah Hayyuj first proposed the three-consonant root, Jonah ibn Janah wrote the first complete Hebrew grammar with a dictionary, and Abraham ibn Ezra and David Qimhi wrote grammatical commentary on the whole Bible. Saadia, Hayyuj and Ibn Janah laid these foundations in the tenth and eleventh centuries, writing in Arabic.

    Sources1–2

  • The Masoretes

    Working from the late fifth to the tenth century in Tiberias, Jerusalem and Babylonia, the Masoretes fixed the vocalized Hebrew text with a notation of vowels and accents, and the Tiberian system prevailed over the Babylonian and Palestinian systems.

    Aaron ben Asher, who passed away about 960, perfected the Tiberian system. Masoretic studies examine the Masoretic Text, its vocalization, accents and marginal notes; the ben Asher and ben Naphtali texts differ in about 875 places.

    Sources13–5

  • Syriac grammarians

    Jacob of Edessa, who passed away on 5 June 708, and Bar Hebraeus, who passed away on 30 July 1286, carried out Syriac biblical revision and grammar, and the Syriac grammarians kept their own philology alive.

    The Bible of the Syriac churches is the Peshitta, whose Old Testament was translated mostly from Hebrew by the second century AD and whose New Testament, translated from Greek, was standard by the early fifth century.

    Sources16–7

  • Ethiopian commentary tradition

    The Ethiopian commentary tradition kept its own philology alive.

    Andemta, a traditional and continuing form, explains the Ge'ez books in Amharic and discusses variants, while qene is the improvised poetry of the church's traditional schools. Ge'ez, attested in inscriptions from about 400 AD, is still the liturgical language, and the Ethiopian Bible has 81 books.

    Sources8–11

  • Secular departments of Near Eastern studies

    Secular departments of Near Eastern studies teach the languages as philology and history.

    Near (or Middle) Eastern Languages and Civilizations is the usual North American department name, as at Harvard, Yale and UCLA; Oxford dropped "Oriental" from its faculty name in 2022 and Chicago from its institute's name in 2023.

    Sources12–19

  • Church institutions

    Church institutions, such as the Pontifical Biblical Institute, the École biblique and the seminaries, teach the languages as the foundation of exegesis.

    The Pontifical Biblical Institute in Rome, founded in 1909, has Biblical and Ancient Near Eastern faculties and since 2024 has been part of the Gregorian University. The École biblique and the Studium Biblicum Franciscanum in Jerusalem, founded in 1890 and 1924, teach Semitic languages, Assyriology and Egyptology. Language-intensive seminaries still require both Greek and Hebrew in the Master of Divinity: at Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary, 12 of the 82 credit hours are biblical languages.

    Sources20–25

  • Eastern and Ethiopian Orthodox schools

    The School of Theology of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki has an Old Testament chair covering both the Hebrew text and the Septuagint, and a Department of Biblical Literature and Religion since 1983.

    Holy Cross in Brookline and St Vladimir's in New York are the Greek Orthodox and pan-Orthodox graduate seminaries of North America. Holy Trinity Theological College in Addis Ababa, reopened in 1995, forms Ethiopian Orthodox clergy with traditional Ge'ez training.

    Sources26–29

  • Academies, foundations and independent institutes

    Beside the universities and the churches stand academies and foundations that produce critical editions: Münster's Editio Critica Maior is funded by an academy, and the Göttingen Septuagint is now carried by a foundation.

    The field's other homes include a Benedictine abbey institute, the Vetus Latina Institut at Beuron, Jewish scholarly bodies such as the Academy of the Hebrew Language, manuscript libraries and independent institutes such as Beth Mardutho for Syriac. Most of the field's base texts are produced by a small number of such long-running centers, and subject rankings cannot see most of them, because they do not grant degrees.

    Sources30–36

How the field developed

  1. Early church
    Before c. 240

    Origen sets the Hebrew, a Greek transliteration and four Greek versions in six columns in the Hexapla; Aquila, Symmachus and Theodotion stand in its third, fourth and sixth columns.37

  2. Late antiquity
    382 to 405

    Jerome, commissioned in 382, works from the originals from about 383 to 405, going back to the Hebrew for most of the Old Testament.38

  3. Late antiquity
    Late 5th to 10th century

    The Masoretes in Tiberias, Jerusalem and Babylonia develop a notation of vowels and accents, and the Tiberian system prevails over the Babylonian and Palestinian systems.13

  4. Medieval
    c. 920

    The Aleppo Codex is written; it was endorsed by Maimonides, and about 40 percent of it was lost after 1947. The Leningrad Codex of 1008 or 1009 is the oldest complete Hebrew Bible and the base of Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia and Biblia Hebraica Quinta.139

  5. Reformation
    1506

    Reuchlin publishes his Hebrew grammar and lexicon.40

  6. Reformation
    1516

    Erasmus publishes the first Greek New Testament on the market, although the Complutensian New Testament had been printed in 1514.4142

  7. Reformation
    1520 to 1657

    The Polyglot Bibles appear: the Paris Polyglot first prints the Samaritan Pentateuch in 1631, and the London Polyglot prints the whole Peshitta.42437

  8. Modern
    1814 to 1822

    Thomas Young works on the Rosetta Stone, and Champollion, using Coptic as his key, announces the decipherment of hieroglyphs on 27 September 1822.444546

  9. Modern
    1835 to 1859

    Rawlinson copies the Behistun inscription and Hincks shows how cuneiform signs work; Akkadian is translated from 1850 to 1859.4748

  10. Modern
    1868

    The Mesha Stele is discovered at Dhiban; dated about 840 BC, it parallels 2 Kings 3 and is a cornerstone of epigraphy.49

  11. Modern
    c. 1887

    The Amarna letters, 382 tablets, come to light, among them the Hurrian Mitanni letter; Akkadian was the diplomatic language of the Late Bronze Age.505152

  12. Modern
    1896 to 1897

    Lewis and Gibson show fragments from the Cairo Genizah to Solomon Schechter, who removes most of the chamber's contents to Cambridge; the Genizah held about 400,000 fragments in all.53

  13. Modern
    1906 to 1915

    Winckler's excavations at Boğazköy from 1906 recover the Hittite archives, and Hrozný deciphers Hittite, the oldest attested Indo-European language, in 1915.545556

  14. Modern
    1928 to 1930

    A tomb is plowed up near Ras Shamra in 1928, excavation yields the first tablets on 14 May 1929, and Bauer, Dhorme and Virolleaud decipher Ugaritic in 1930.5758

  15. Modern
    1945

    The Nag Hammadi codices come to light: 52 mostly Gnostic works in Coptic, mainly Sahidic with Lycopolitan elements.5960

  16. Modern
    1946 to 1956

    The first Dead Sea Scrolls come to light in the winter of 1946 to 1947; by 1956 eleven caves have yielded 981 manuscripts in Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek.61

How to study biblical and ancient languages

The questions it asks

  • In which language, and at which stage of it, was each part of the Bible written?6263
  • Is a given piece of evidence a language, a text tradition, a reading tradition, a script, a translation corpus or a version?
  • What does a word mean in its sentence, as distinct from its origin or the whole range of senses it can carry?6465
  • Is a parallel from Ugarit or Babylon evidence of borrowing, or a question still to test?66
  • How did the Greek translators render their Hebrew, and how was the Greek later revised?6768
  • What can grammar settle, and what must be left to interpretation?

Its method

Start

  1. Choose one language and start with a teaching grammar, then move to a graded reader and the reference grammar, and only then to the critical editions.

  2. Separate the layers of evidence: consonantal text, vocalization, ancient versions, later citation and modern translation.

  3. Define a word by its use rather than its origin, and do not read every sense it can carry into each of its occurrences6465.

  4. Do not let a cognate in another Semitic language by itself give a Hebrew word a new meaning69.

  5. Test a parallel between texts rather than treating it as proof of borrowing, the error Samuel Sandmel named parallelomania in 19626670.

  6. Weigh witnesses rather than counting them: a witness's own error rate counts against it, and the age of a manuscript does not by itself make its reading original71.

  7. Treat grammar as showing what is possible, and the dating of a language as giving ranges rather than points63.

  8. Note how an edition or translation displays uncertainty, since that display is a scholarly decision in its own right72.

  9. Judge each digital tool by its underlying edition: a search interface is not evidence of the quality of the transcription beneath it.

What to read

Its primary witnesses

  • The Masoretic codices: the Aleppo Codex, about 920, and the Leningrad Codex, 1008 or 1009, the oldest complete Hebrew Bible139.
  • The Dead Sea Scrolls, 981 manuscripts from eleven caves in Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek, which show the Masoretic tradition stable from the second century BC, with earlier fluidity61.
  • The Samaritan Pentateuch, with about 6,000 differences from the Masoretic Text, mostly in spelling, of which about 1,900 to 2,000 agree with the Septuagint43.
  • The Septuagint, the earliest Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, and its later revisions, the kaige revision and Aquila, Symmachus and Theodotion6768.
  • The Targums, among them Onqelos for the Torah, Jonathan for the Prophets and Neofiti I73.
  • The Syriac Peshitta and the Syro-Hexapla, made by Paul of Tella about 617, which preserves Origen's critical signs76.
  • The Latin, Coptic, Ge'ez, Armenian, Georgian, Old Church Slavonic and Arabic versions7438601175767778.
  • Greek New Testament manuscripts, more than 5,800, with about 10,000 in Latin and 9,300 in other ancient languages79.
  • The Cairo Genizah fragments, about 400,000 in all; the Taylor-Schechter Genizah Research Unit at Cambridge holds more than 200,0005380.
  • Inscriptions and tablets of the surrounding cultures, such as the Mesha Stele, the Amarna letters and the Ugaritic Baal Cycle495281.

Standard reference works

  • Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia, the Leningrad Codex with Masoretic and text-critical notes (1968 to 1976), and Biblia Hebraica Quinta, with nine fascicles published and completion estimated about 20328283.
  • The Hebrew University Bible Project, the Aleppo Codex with its full Masorah, with four books published84.
  • Novum Testamentum Graece, 28th edition (2012), and the United Bible Societies' Greek New Testament, sixth edition (2025)85.
  • The Editio Critica Maior, published for the Catholic Letters, Acts, Mark and Revelation86.
  • The Göttingen Septuagint, with 26 of 36 volumes published, and the Rahlfs-Hanhart hand edition (1935, revised 2006)8788.
  • The Leiden Peshitta, the critical Syriac Old Testament, first volume 1972, and the Vetus Latina edition of Beuron8990.
  • For Hebrew: Brown-Driver-Briggs (1906), HALOT (English 1994 to 2000) and the Dictionary of Classical Hebrew (eight volumes, complete 2011)919293.
  • For Greek: BDAG (2000) and Louw-Nida (1988) for the New Testament, and Muraoka's A Greek-English Lexicon of the Septuagint (2009)949596.
  • For Aramaic and Syriac: Sokoloff's dictionaries of Jewish Palestinian and Jewish Babylonian Aramaic, the online Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon, Payne Smith's Thesaurus Syriacus and Sokoloff's A Syriac Lexicon (2009)979899100101.
  • For the context languages: Crum's A Coptic Dictionary (1929 to 1939), Gardiner's Egyptian Grammar (1927), the Chicago Assyrian Dictionary (1956 to 2011) and Leslau's Comparative Dictionary of Ge'ez (1987)102103104105.
  • Text corpora: Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, 40 volumes from 1955; KAI and KTU for the Canaanite, Aramaic and Ugaritic inscriptions; and the anthologies ANET and The Context of Scripture106107108109110.
  • Digital tools such as the New Testament Virtual Manuscript Room, the Codex Sinaiticus Project, BHSA and SHEBANQ, the Thesaurus Linguae Graecae, CDLI and ORACC, and Coptic Scriptorium111112113114115116117118.

Scholarship referenced in this study

The works below shaped the field and are cited in this study, from the earliest to the most recent. Hover over a book, or select it, to see its author and the sources behind it.

  • 1923Grammaire de l'hébreu bibliquePaul JoüonGrammaire de l'hébreu biblique (1923)Paul Joüon (passed away 18 February 1940)Sources119
  • 1927Egyptian GrammarAlan GardinerEgyptian Grammar (1927)Alan Gardiner (passed away 19 December 1963)Sources103
  • 1929 to 1939A Coptic DictionaryW. E. CrumA Coptic Dictionary (1929 to 1939)W. E. Crum (passed away 18 May 1944)Sources102
  • 1961The Semantics of Biblical LanguageJames BarrThe Semantics of Biblical Language (1961)James Barr (passed away 14 October 2006)Sources69120
  • 1961A Grammar of Biblical AramaicFranz RosenthalA Grammar of Biblical Aramaic (1961)Franz Rosenthal (passed away 8 April 2003)Sources121
  • 1973Canaanite Myth and Hebrew EpicFrank Moore CrossCanaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic (1973)Frank Moore Cross (passed away 16 October 2012)Sources122
  • 1987Comparative Dictionary of Ge'ezWolf LeslauComparative Dictionary of Ge'ez (1987)Wolf Leslau (passed away 18 November 2006)Sources105
  • 1988Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament Based on Semantic DomainsJohannes P. LouwGreek-English Lexicon of the New Testament Based on Semantic Domains (1988)Johannes P. Louw (passed away 23 December 2011), with Eugene NidaSources95
  • 1990An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew SyntaxBruce WaltkeAn Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax (1990)Bruce Waltke, with M. P. O'ConnorSources123
  • 1992Textual Criticism of the Hebrew BibleEmanuel TovTextual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible (1992)Emanuel TovSources124–125
  • 2009A Greek-English Lexicon of the SeptuagintTakamitsu MuraokaA Greek-English Lexicon of the Septuagint (2009)Takamitsu Muraoka (passed away 10 February 2026)Sources126
  • 2020The Tiberian Pronunciation Tradition of Biblical HebrewGeoffrey KhanThe Tiberian Pronunciation Tradition of Biblical Hebrew (2020)Geoffrey KhanSources127

Listed because this study draws on their published work; no association with or endorsement of Numa Verse is implied. Suggest a correction.

Key terms

The words that carry the most weight in this field, each defined from the sources of this study. Turn a card over to read its definition.

The Greek of about 300 BC to 600 AD, the language of the Septuagint, the New Testament and the early church fathers128.

The Aramaic of the Persian period in Daniel 2:4b to 7:28, Ezra 4:8 to 6:18 and 7:12 to 26, Jeremiah 10:11 and a place name in Genesis 31:47, 269 verses in all63.

An ancient translation of the Bible and a witness to how the text was transmitted, translated and read; a version, such as the Peshitta, is not the language it is written in.

The earliest Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, the Torah translated in Alexandria in the mid to late third century BC and the other books mainly in the second; it is a translation corpus, not a language67.

An Aramaic translation or paraphrase of Scripture, an oral practice from about the end of the first century BC and written from the mid-first century AD73.

A Hebraizing revision of the Greek text from the first century BC, identified by Barthélemy in the Nahal Hever Minor Prophets scroll68.

The system of vowel signs, from about 850 AD, that prevailed over the Babylonian and Palestinian systems; it is a reading tradition, not a script1291.

Defining a word by its origin rather than its use64.

James Barr's label for reading every sense a word can carry into each of its occurrences65.

Samuel Sandmel's name, in 1962, for noticing a similarity between texts, overplaying it and then treating it as proof of borrowing6670.

Where it sits

Builds on

Biblical and ancient languages

Leads to

From the Journal

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Which Bible translation is the most accurate?

No single translation is the most accurate in every respect. Each one makes deliberate choices about how closely to follow the original wording, and about which ancient texts to translate from.Numa Verse Editorial · November 2026 · 6 min read

Questions people ask

Hebrew, Aramaic and Koine Greek62. Aramaic is used in parts of Daniel and Ezra, in Jeremiah 10:11 and in a place name in Genesis 31:47, 269 verses in all63. New Testament writers follow the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, in more than half of their Old Testament quotations128.

No. In the narrow sense the field covers the languages in which the Bible was first written; in a wider sense it also covers the ancient translations and the languages of the surrounding cultures, but that wider sense is a scope for study, not a single discipline62. Assyriology, Egyptology and Semitic studies overlap with biblical studies but are autonomous fields with their own questions, careers and departments13048131.

Both readings are possible Hebrew: the consonants are not in dispute, only whether bereshit opens an independent sentence or a dependent clause132133. Rashi, Ibn Ezra, Speiser, Blenkinsopp and others read it as dependent, and John Day among others as independent132133. The NRSVue, CEB and Revised JPS (2023) read When God began to create, while the ESV, NIV, NET and KJV read In the beginning134135. Grammar alone does not settle the theological question of creation from nothing, which Ibn Ezra had already separated from the meaning of the verb136.

Daniel moves from Hebrew to Aramaic at 2:4b and back to Hebrew at 8:1, and all four Qumran copies that preserve the passages show the same switch, so the bilingual form is old63137. The language division does not match the division between the tales of chapters 1 to 6 and the visions of chapters 7 to 12137. Proposed explanations include a second writer, one writer moving between two languages, an Aramaic original partly translated into Hebrew, a deliberate literary design and growth in stages; W. Sibley Towner notes that no one has determined why the text switches138137.

Not by itself. James Barr, in The Semantics of Biblical Language (1961), attacked arguments from etymology and the idea that Hebrew vocabulary reveals a distinct Hebrew mind69120. The etymological fallacy defines a word by its origin rather than its use64, and in 1968 Barr added that a cognate in another Semitic language does not by itself give a Hebrew word a new meaning69. A word means what it means in its sentence.

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  1. 1Wikipedia lead extracts: Judah ibn Kuraish, Hayyuj, Ibn Janah, Ibn Ezra, Kimhi, the vocalizations, Aleppo and Leningrad Codices, Jacob of Edessa, Bar Hebraeus, Masoretes (Wikipedia API)https://en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=query&prop=extracts&exintro=1&explaintext=1&exlimit=20&redirects=1&format=json&titles=Judah_ibn_Kuraish|Judah_ben_David_Hayyuj|Jonah_ibn_Janah|Abraham_ibn_Ezra|David_Kimhi|Tiberian_vocalization|Babylonian_vocalization|Palestinian_vocalization|Aleppo_Codex|Leningrad_Codex|Jacob_of_Edessa|Bar_Hebraeus|Masoretes (opens in a new tab)
  2. 2Saadia Gaon (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saadia_Gaon (opens in a new tab)
  3. 3Masoretes (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masoretes (opens in a new tab)
  4. 4Aaron ben Moses ben Asher (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aaron_ben_Moses_ben_Asher (opens in a new tab)
  5. 5Masoretic Text (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masoretic_Text (opens in a new tab)
  6. 6Syro-Hexaplar version (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syro-Hexaplar_version (opens in a new tab)
  7. 7Peshitta (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peshitta (opens in a new tab)
  8. 8Preserving the lay bet andemta, EAP336 (British Library, Endangered Archives Programme)https://eap.bl.uk/node/2851 (opens in a new tab)
  9. 9Ethiopian biblical commentaries: the Amharic Andemta commentary, Roger Pearse, 2012 (roger-pearse.com)https://www.roger-pearse.com/weblog/2012/02/28/ethiopian-biblical-commentaries-the-amharic-andemta-commentary/ (opens in a new tab)
  10. 10Qene (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qene (opens in a new tab)
  11. 11Geʽez (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez (opens in a new tab)
  12. 12Department of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations (Harvard University)https://nelc.fas.harvard.edu/ (opens in a new tab)
  13. 13About Us, Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations (Yale University)https://nelc.yale.edu/about/introduction (opens in a new tab)
  14. 14Language Programs, Middle Eastern Languages and Cultures (University of Pennsylvania)https://melc.sas.upenn.edu/node/544 (opens in a new tab)
  15. 15Programs, Near Eastern Languages and Cultures (UCLA)https://nelc.ucla.edu/graduate/programs/ (opens in a new tab)
  16. 16Assyriology and Egyptology (University of Oxford Admissions)https://www.ox.ac.uk/admissions/undergraduate/courses/course-listing/asian-and-middle-eastern-studies/egyptology (opens in a new tab)
  17. 17Assyriology (Heidelberg University)https://www.uni-heidelberg.de/en/study/all-subjects/assyriology (opens in a new tab)
  18. 18Faculty of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies (Oxford) (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faculty_of_Asian_and_Middle_Eastern_Studies (opens in a new tab)
  19. 19Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_the_Study_of_Ancient_Cultures (opens in a new tab)
  20. 20ELCOA Orient ancien (Institut Catholique de Paris)https://www.icp.fr/a-propos-de-licp/facultes-et-instituts/ecole-des-langues-et-civilisations-de-lorient-ancien-elcoa-1 (opens in a new tab)
  21. 21École Biblique (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cole_Biblique (opens in a new tab)
  22. 22Studium Biblicum Franciscanum (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Studium_Biblicum_Franciscanum (opens in a new tab)
  23. 23Pontifical Biblical Institute (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifical_Biblical_Institute (opens in a new tab)
  24. 24Pontificio Istituto Biblico (Wikipedia, Italian)https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontificio_Istituto_Biblico (opens in a new tab)
  25. 25Master of Divinity (Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary)https://swbts.edu/degree/master-of-divinity/ (opens in a new tab)
  26. 26School of Theology (Aristotle University of Thessaloniki)https://www.auth.gr/en/school/theo-en/ (opens in a new tab)
  27. 27Wikipedia extracts: Kurt and Barbara Aland, Rahlfs, Wevers, Academy of the Hebrew Language, Bar-Ilan, Albright, Beth Mardutho, St Vladimir's, Hellenic College Holy Cross, Serampore College (Wikipedia API)https://en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=query&prop=extracts&exintro=1&explaintext=1&exlimit=20&redirects=1&format=json&titles=Taylor-Schechter_Genizah_Collection|Peshitta_Institute|Oxford_Centre_for_Hebrew_and_Jewish_Studies|Academy_of_the_Hebrew_Language|Bar-Ilan_University|William_F._Albright|Beth_Mardutho|St._Vladimir's_Orthodox_Theological_Seminary|Hellenic_College_Holy_Cross_Greek_Orthodox_School_of_Theology|Serampore_College|Holy_Trinity_Theological_College|Gregory–Aland_number|Coherence-Based_Genealogical_Method|Barbara_Aland|Kurt_Aland|Holger_Strutwolf|Alfred_Rahlfs|John_William_Wevers|Joseph_Ziegler|Natalio_Fernández_Marcos (opens in a new tab)
  28. 28Theological College of the Holy Trinity (Wikipedia, full text)https://en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=query&prop=extracts&explaintext=1&redirects=1&format=json&titles=Theological_College_of_the_Holy_Trinity (opens in a new tab)
  29. 29Into the Future, Holy Trinity, Addis Ababa (CNEWA)https://cnewa.org/magazine/into-the-future-33296/ (opens in a new tab)
  30. 30Institut für Neutestamentliche Textforschung, home page (University of Münster)https://www.uni-muenster.de/INTF/ (opens in a new tab)
  31. 31The Editio critica maior of the Greek Psalter (Göttingen Academy)https://septuaginta.uni-goettingen.de (opens in a new tab)
  32. 32Vetus Latina Institut (Herder)https://www.herder.de/vetus-latina/institut/ (opens in a new tab)
  33. 33Academy of the Hebrew Language (Wikipedia, full text)https://en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=query&prop=extracts&explaintext=1&redirects=1&format=json&titles=Academy_of_the_Hebrew_Language (opens in a new tab)
  34. 34About (Beth Mardutho)https://bethmardutho.org/about/ (opens in a new tab)
  35. 35QS World University Rankings, methodology (QS Support)https://support.qs.com/hc/en-gb/articles/4405955370898-QS-World-University-Rankings (opens in a new tab)
  36. 36Academic Reputation Indicator (QS Support)https://support.qs.com/hc/en-gb/articles/4405952675346-Academic-Reputation-Indicator (opens in a new tab)
  37. 37Hexapla (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexapla (opens in a new tab)
  38. 38Vulgate (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulgate (opens in a new tab)
  39. 39Leningrad Codex (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leningrad_Codex (opens in a new tab)
  40. 40Johann Reuchlin (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Reuchlin (opens in a new tab)
  41. 41Novum Instrumentum omne (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novum_Instrumentum_omne (opens in a new tab)
  42. 42Complutensian Polyglot Bible (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complutensian_Polyglot_Bible (opens in a new tab)
  43. 43Samaritan Pentateuch (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samaritan_Pentateuch (opens in a new tab)
  44. 44Thomas Young (scientist) (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Young_(scientist) (opens in a new tab)
  45. 45Rosetta Stone (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta_Stone (opens in a new tab)
  46. 46Jean-François Champollion (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Champollion (opens in a new tab)
  47. 47Behistun inscription (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behistun_inscription (opens in a new tab)
  48. 48Assyriology (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assyriology (opens in a new tab)
  49. 49Mesha Stele (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesha_Stele (opens in a new tab)
  50. 50Amarna letters (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarna_letters (opens in a new tab)
  51. 51Hurrian language (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurrian_language (opens in a new tab)
  52. 52Akkadian language (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akkadian_language (opens in a new tab)
  53. 53Cairo Geniza (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cairo_Geniza (opens in a new tab)
  54. 54Hattusa (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hattusa (opens in a new tab)
  55. 55Bedřich Hrozný (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bed%C5%99ich_Hrozn%C3%BD (opens in a new tab)
  56. 56Hittite language (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hittite_language (opens in a new tab)
  57. 57Ugarit (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ugarit (opens in a new tab)
  58. 58Ugaritic Alphabet Tablet, 14th-13th century BCE, excerpt of P. C. Craigie, BAR 1983 (Center for Online Judaic Studies)https://cojs.org/ugaritic_alphabet_tablet-_14th-13th_century_bce/ (opens in a new tab)
  59. 59Nag Hammadi library (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nag_Hammadi_library (opens in a new tab)
  60. 60Coptic language (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coptic_language (opens in a new tab)
  61. 61Dead Sea Scrolls (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dead_Sea_Scrolls (opens in a new tab)
  62. 62Biblical languages (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_languages (opens in a new tab)
  63. 63Biblical Aramaic (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_Aramaic (opens in a new tab)
  64. 64Etymological fallacy (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etymological_fallacy (opens in a new tab)
  65. 65Lexical Semantics and Lexicography, Christoph Heilig, 2 May 2020 (Logos)https://www.logos.com/grow/lexical-semantics-and-lexicography/ (opens in a new tab)
  66. 66Parallelomania (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallelomania (opens in a new tab)
  67. 67Septuagint (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septuagint (opens in a new tab)
  68. 68Kaige revision (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaige_revision (opens in a new tab)
  69. 69James Barr (biblical scholar) (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Barr_(biblical_scholar) (opens in a new tab)
  70. 70Samuel Sandmel's Article: Parallelomania (1962), comment by Stephen Goranson, 17 February 2021 (Vridar)https://vridar.org/other-authors/samuel-sandmels-article-parallelomania-1962/ (opens in a new tab)
  71. 71They have pierced my hands and my feet (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/They_have_pierced_my_hands_and_my_feet (opens in a new tab)
  72. 72Mark 1:1: How to Display Differences in Biblical Manuscripts in Editions and Translations, Kalle O. Lundahl, Harvard Theological Review 117.1, 2024 (Cambridge Core)https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/harvard-theological-review/article/mark-11-how-to-display-differences-in-biblical-manuscripts-in-editions-and-translations/7A20AE0C698D5EDE53473D8FCCC800A5 (opens in a new tab)
  73. 73Targum (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Targum (opens in a new tab)
  74. 74Vetus Latina (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vetus_Latina (opens in a new tab)
  75. 75Bible translations into Armenian (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible_translations_into_Armenian (opens in a new tab)
  76. 76Bible translations into Georgian (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible_translations_into_Georgian (opens in a new tab)
  77. 77Bible translations into Church Slavonic (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible_translations_into_Church_Slavonic (opens in a new tab)
  78. 78Bible translations into Arabic (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible_translations_into_Arabic (opens in a new tab)
  79. 79Textual criticism of the New Testament (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textual_criticism_of_the_New_Testament (opens in a new tab)
  80. 80Discarded history: Cairo Genizah treasures, 2022 (University of Cambridge)https://www.cam.ac.uk/stories/discarded-history-treasures-of-the-cairo-genizah (opens in a new tab)
  81. 81Ugaritic (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ugaritic (opens in a new tab)
  82. 82Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblia_Hebraica_Stuttgartensia (opens in a new tab)
  83. 83Biblia Hebraica Quinta (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblia_Hebraica_Quinta (opens in a new tab)
  84. 84Hebrew University Bible Project (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_University_Bible_Project (opens in a new tab)
  85. 85Novum Testamentum Graece (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novum_Testamentum_Graece (opens in a new tab)
  86. 86Editio Critica Maior (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Editio_Critica_Maior (opens in a new tab)
  87. 87Septuaginta: Vetus Testamentum Graecum (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septuaginta:_Vetus_Testamentum_Graecum (opens in a new tab)
  88. 88Alfred Rahlfs' edition of the Septuagint (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Rahlfs%27_edition_of_the_Septuagint (opens in a new tab)
  89. 89Juckel, review of the Leiden Peshitta concordance, Hugoye vol. 1 (Beth Mardutho)https://hugoye.bethmardutho.org/pdf/vol1/HV1N2PRJuckel.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  90. 90Vetus Latina, Textausgabe (Herder)https://herder.de/vetus-latina/edition/textausgabe (opens in a new tab)
  91. 91Brown-Driver-Briggs (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown%E2%80%93Driver%E2%80%93Briggs (opens in a new tab)
  92. 92Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_and_Aramaic_Lexicon_of_the_Old_Testament (opens in a new tab)
  93. 93Dictionary of Classical Hebrew, complete 8 volumes (Accordance)https://accordancebible.com/product/dictionary-of-classical-hebrew-complete-8-volumes (opens in a new tab)
  94. 94Bauer's Lexicon (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bauer%27s_Lexicon (opens in a new tab)
  95. 95Johannes P. Louw (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_P._Louw (opens in a new tab)
  96. 96Muraoka's LXX Lexicon Available (koine-greek.com)https://koine-greek.com/2009/07/23/muraokas-lxx-lexicon-available/ (opens in a new tab)
  97. 97Sokoloff, A Dictionary of Jewish Palestinian Aramaic, 2002, bibliographic record (Judaism and Rome)https://heurist.huma-num.fr/heurist/judaism_and_rome/view/1774 (opens in a new tab)
  98. 98A dictionary of Jewish Babylonian Aramaic (Bar-Ilan University research portal)https://cris.biu.ac.il/en/publications/a-dictionary-of-jewish-babylonian-aramaic-of-the-talmudic-and-geo/ (opens in a new tab)
  99. 99Comprehensive Aramaic Lexicon (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comprehensive_Aramaic_Lexicon (opens in a new tab)
  100. 100Robert Payne Smith (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Payne_Smith (opens in a new tab)
  101. 101A Syriac Lexicon (Gorgias Press)https://gorgiaspress.com/a-syriac-lexicon (opens in a new tab)
  102. 102Walter Ewing Crum (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Ewing_Crum (opens in a new tab)
  103. 103Alan Gardiner (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Gardiner (opens in a new tab)
  104. 104Chicago Assyrian Dictionary (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_Assyrian_Dictionary (opens in a new tab)
  105. 105Wolf Leslau (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolf_Leslau (opens in a new tab)
  106. 106Discoveries in the Judaean Desert (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discoveries_in_the_Judaean_Desert (opens in a new tab)
  107. 107Kanaanäische und Aramäische Inschriften (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanaan%C3%A4ische_und_Aram%C3%A4ische_Inschriften (opens in a new tab)
  108. 108Keilalphabetische Texte aus Ugarit (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keilalphabetische_Texte_aus_Ugarit (opens in a new tab)
  109. 109Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Near_Eastern_Texts_Relating_to_the_Old_Testament (opens in a new tab)
  110. 110The Context of Scripture (Logos)https://www.logos.com/product/2210/the-context-of-scripture (opens in a new tab)
  111. 111New Testament Virtual Manuscript Room, home (INTF, University of Münster)https://ntvmr.uni-muenster.de/ (opens in a new tab)
  112. 112About the Project (The Codex Sinaiticus Project)https://codexsinaiticus.org/en/project/ (opens in a new tab)
  113. 113BHSA, Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia Amstelodamensis (ETCBC)https://etcbc.github.io/bhsa/ (opens in a new tab)
  114. 114SHEBANQ (Digital Classicist Wiki)https://wiki.digitalclassicist.org/SHEBANQ (opens in a new tab)
  115. 115Thesaurus Linguae Graecae (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thesaurus_Linguae_Graecae (opens in a new tab)
  116. 116Cuneiform Digital Library Initiative (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuneiform_Digital_Library_Initiative (opens in a new tab)
  117. 117About Oracc (Oracc)https://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/doc/about/aboutoracc/index.html (opens in a new tab)
  118. 118Coptic SCRIPTORIUM (copticscriptorium.org)https://copticscriptorium.org/ (opens in a new tab)
  119. 119Paul Joüon (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Jo%C3%BCon (opens in a new tab)
  120. 120Barr, The Semantics of Biblical Language, search record (Open Library)https://openlibrary.org/search.json?q=barr+semantics+of+biblical+language&fields=title,author_name,publish_year,publisher&limit=2 (opens in a new tab)
  121. 121Franz Rosenthal (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Rosenthal (opens in a new tab)
  122. 122Frank Moore Cross (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Moore_Cross (opens in a new tab)
  123. 123Bruce Waltke (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Waltke (opens in a new tab)
  124. 124Emanuel Tov (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emanuel_Tov (opens in a new tab)
  125. 125Tov, Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible, search record (Open Library)https://openlibrary.org/search.json?q=tov+textual+criticism+of+the+hebrew+bible&fields=title,author_name,publish_year,publisher&limit=3 (opens in a new tab)
  126. 126Takamitsu Muraoka (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takamitsu_Muraoka (opens in a new tab)
  127. 127Geoffrey Khan (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoffrey_Khan (opens in a new tab)
  128. 128Koine Greek (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koine_Greek (opens in a new tab)
  129. 129Biblical Hebrew (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_Hebrew (opens in a new tab)
  130. 130Semitic studies (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semitic_studies (opens in a new tab)
  131. 131Egyptology (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptology (opens in a new tab)
  132. 132Genesis 1:1 (Wikipedia)https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genesis_1:1 (opens in a new tab)
  133. 133Examining Translations of Genesis 1:1 in relation to Genesis 1:1-3, Part Three, James P. Sweeney (Winebrenner Theological Seminary)https://winebrenner.edu/2019/05/02/examining-translations-of-genesis-11-in-relation-to-genesis-11-3-part-three/ (opens in a new tab)
  134. 134Genesis 1:1 in all English translations (Bible Gateway)https://www.biblegateway.com/verse/en/Genesis%201:1 (opens in a new tab)
  135. 135Genesis 1, Revised JPS 2023 (Sefaria)https://www.sefaria.org/Genesis.1.1?lang=en (opens in a new tab)
  136. 136Ibn Ezra on Genesis 1:1, trans. Strickman and Silver (Sefaria)https://www.sefaria.org/Ibn_Ezra_on_Genesis.1.1.1?lang=en (opens in a new tab)
  137. 137Book of Daniel (Wikipedia, full text)https://en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=query&prop=extracts&explaintext=1&redirects=1&format=json&titles=Book_of_Daniel (opens in a new tab)
  138. 138Daniel, W. Sibley Towner, Oxford Companion to the Bible, reserve text (pages.mtu.edu)https://pages.mtu.edu/~rlstrick/rsvtxt/daniel.htm (opens in a new tab)

Page record

Reviewed and approved by Duane Herholdt, BA (Theology), Chief Executive Officer, Numa Verse

Study version: v2.2, 13 October 2026 (theology map v1.27)

Last reviewed: 9 November 2026

How these pages are made

  • 9 November 2026: First draft from the approved study v2.2.