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Systematic theologyWhat does it teach as a whole?

Christology

What is christology?

Christology is the part of Christian theology that studies Jesus Christ: his person, the relation of divine and human in him, and his work, where it meets the doctrine of salvation. The division between who Christ is and what he does is the field's basic structure. In theological degrees it is normally a core module of systematic theology.

  • 179Sources
  • 25Traditions
  • 16Dated entries
  • 19Minutes

Study v1.5, 16 October 2026

Christology

At a glance

Why it matters for reading Scripture

Who Jesus is, his person and his work: the center of Christian faith.

What the study found

Most churches confess Christ in the conciliar language formed from Nicaea (325) to Constantinople III (680 to 681), centred on Chalcedon's one person in two natures.

Where traditions divide

Chalcedon divided the Chalcedonian churches from the Oriental Orthodox and the Church of the East; Lutheran and Reformed later divided over Christ's humanity and the Supper.

How the traditions compare

  • Catholic

    The Catechism of the Catholic Church teaches that in the Incarnation the Son became truly man while remaining truly God, not part God and part man nor a confused mixture of the two, and receives Chalcedon's confession of one and the same Christ, consubstantial with the Father in his divinity and with us in his humanity.

    Christ's human nature is assumed, not absorbed, and he has a human intellect and a human will in harmony with the divine will. Dominus Iesus (2000) teaches that Jesus of Nazareth alone is the Son and the Word of the Father, and the International Theological Commission's documents of 1979, 1981, 1985 and 2025 develop the Church's teaching. The Catholic Church includes the Eastern Catholic churches, which keep Byzantine, Syriac, Armenian, Coptic and other inheritances while in communion with the Church of Rome and its bishop.

    Sources1–7

  • Eastern Orthodox

    The Orthodox Church in America's catechetical text presents the confession that Jesus Christ is Lord, Kyrios, a title proper to God, as the fundamental confession of Christians.

    The Orthodox Church receives the seven councils, including Constantinople III's two wills and two operations in the one person of Christ, and the teaching of Maximus the Confessor and of Gregory Palamas on the uncreated light. Its account of salvation centers on theosis, a union with the divine energies and not the essence, in which the deified remain creatures. In its dialogue with the Oriental Orthodox it agreed in 1990 that the natures are distinguished in thought alone and that the Orthodox may also use Cyril's formula of one nature of the incarnate Logos; full communion between the two families has not been restored.

    Sources8–15

  • Oriental Orthodox

    The family includes the Coptic Orthodox Church, the Syrian Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch, the Armenian Catholicosates, the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church and the Ethiopian Orthodox Church.

    Pope Shenouda III teaches that Christ is God the incarnate Word, who took a perfect manhood united to his divinity without mingling, confusion or alteration, and that the Church's formula is the one nature of God the incarnate Logos, from Cyril; he rejects the label monophysite as a misreading. The Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church confesses one composite hypostasis, and V. C. Samuel argued in The Council of Chalcedon Re-Examined (1977) that the dispute over one or two natures rested largely on mutual misunderstanding. The Ethiopian name Tewahedo means being made one, naming the union of divinity and humanity in Christ.

    Sources16–21

  • Assyrian Church of the East

    Sebastian Brock, writing for the Church of the East, sets out its terms: kyana, nature; qnoma, the individual instance of a nature, not to be translated person; and parsopa, person.

    The Church of the East confesses two kyane and two qnome in one parsopa, and Babai the Great's Book of the Union is the classic statement of its Christology. It never received the Council of Ephesus and regards the name Nestorian as polemical. Its Common Christological Declaration with the Catholic Church (1994) confesses Christ's divinity and humanity united in one person without confusion or change, without division or separation.

    Sources22–24

  • Lutheran

    The Formula of Concord (Solid Declaration VIII) teaches that Christ is not two persons but one, with two natures never separated or mingled, and a true communion of the natures, so that the death of the man is called God's death.

    Through the personal union the human nature has received divine majesty, hidden in the state of humiliation, and Christ can be present with his body wherever he wills, especially in the Lord's Supper; God's right hand is God's almighty power, not a place.

    Sources25

  • Reformed

    The Westminster Confession (1646) teaches two whole, perfect and distinct natures inseparably joined in one person, and that Christ in his work of mediation acts according to both natures.

    The Heidelberg Catechism (1563) holds that in his human nature Christ is not now on earth, while in his divinity he is never absent; the Belgic Confession (1561) holds that each nature keeps its own properties, and the Second Helvetic Confession that Christ's human nature is not everywhere. Its teaching that the Word, wholly united to the flesh, also remains wholly beyond it is called the extra Calvinisticum. The Leuenberg Agreement of 16 March 1973 records that the Reformed tradition stressed the integrity of Christ's divinity and humanity and the Lutheran tradition the full unity of his person, and that the signatory churches can no longer adopt the past mutual condemnations.

    Sources26–31

  • Anglican

    The Thirty-Nine Articles (1571) confess in Article II that the Godhead and manhood were joined in one Person, never to be divided, very God and very man, and in Article IV that Christ rose with flesh and bones.

    Sources32

  • Methodist

    The United Methodist Articles of Religion, Wesley's abridgment of the Anglican articles, confess in Article II the Son, the very and eternal God, of one substance with the Father, with two natures united in one person.

    Sources33

  • Baptist

    Baptists hold no single binding confession.

    The Southern Baptist Convention's Baptist Faith and Message 2000 confesses Christ as the eternal Son of God, conceived of the Holy Spirit and born of the virgin Mary, now the one Mediator, fully God, fully man. The Second London Baptist Confession (1689), chapter 8, follows Westminster closely: two whole, perfect and distinct natures joined in one person without conversion, composition or confusion.

    Sources2634–35

  • Holiness traditions

    The Church of the Nazarene's Article II confesses Jesus Christ as the Second Person of the Triune Godhead, with two whole and perfect natures, Godhead and manhood, united in one Person, very God and very man.

    The Salvation Army's fourth doctrine holds that in the person of Jesus Christ the divine and human natures are united, so that he is truly and properly God and truly and properly man.

    Sources36–37

  • Pentecostal

    The Assemblies of God's Statement of Fundamental Truths confesses in Truth 3 that the Lord Jesus Christ is the eternal Son of God, and lists his virgin birth, sinless life, miracles, substitutionary work, bodily resurrection and exaltation.

    Sources38

  • Oneness Pentecostal

    The United Pentecostal Church International confesses one God revealed as Father, through his Son in redemption, and as the Holy Spirit, and teaches that Jesus Christ is God manifested in flesh, both God and man, with baptism in the name of Jesus Christ.

    Oneness Pentecostals do not confess three eternal persons.

    Sources39

  • Anabaptist and Mennonite

    The Confession of Faith in a Mennonite Perspective, adopted in July 1995, confesses in Article 2 Jesus Christ, the Word of God become flesh: fully human and tempted, yet without sin, the model human being, and fully divine, the one in whom the fullness of God was pleased to dwell.

    Menno Simons in the sixteenth century held the celestial flesh view, that Christ took no human flesh from Mary, which the Belgic Confession condemned; the 1995 Confession does not teach it.

    Sources2840–41

  • Seventh-day Adventist

    Fundamental Belief 4, The Son, confesses that God the eternal Son became incarnate in Jesus Christ, forever truly God and also truly human, conceived of the Holy Spirit and born of the virgin Mary, who now ministers in the heavenly sanctuary.

    Adventists have debated whether Christ took human nature as it was after the Fall; Woodrow Whidden traces the debate from M. L. Andreasen's post-Fall view to the book Questions on Doctrine (1957) and its later republication.

    Sources42–43

  • Evangelical statements

    The Lausanne Covenant (1974) holds that there is only one Savior and that Christ is the only mediator between God and people, and rejects the view that he speaks equally through all religions.

    The National Association of Evangelicals confesses the deity of Christ, his virgin birth, sinless life, miracles, atoning death, bodily resurrection, ascension and personal return.

    Sources44–45

  • Moravian

    The Moravian Ground of the Unity confesses Jesus Christ as the one Lord and Head of his body, the Church, and acknowledges the Apostles', Nicene and Athanasian Creeds.

    Sources46

  • Friends (Quakers)

    The Religious Society of Friends sets no binding creed and holds a range of views among its members; Britain Yearly Meeting's Quaker Faith and Practice records George Fox's experience of 1647 of Christ Jesus who could speak to his condition.

    Sources47

  • African Instituted Churches

    The World Council of Churches recognizes African Instituted Churches as a church family of their own: independent African churches that arose from the late nineteenth century, partly in reaction to racism and to missionary control.

    Their Christologies are diverse and are not well represented by any single statement. A body of African origin, the Kimbanguist Church, founded in 1921, joined the World Council of Churches in 1969 and in 2021 lost its membership on doctrinal grounds, because its official teaching identifies Simon Kimbangu and his successors with persons of the Trinity.

    Sources48–49

  • Jehovah's Witnesses

    Jehovah's Witnesses teach that Jesus is the firstborn of all creation, created by Jehovah God before everything else, God's only-begotten Son and the Word, and not Almighty God; they also identify Jesus with the archangel Michael.

    Sources50–51

  • Latter-day Saints

    The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints teaches that Jesus Christ is the Son of Heavenly Father, the Only Begotten in the flesh and the Jehovah of the Old Testament, and that the members of the Godhead are three separate beings, one in purpose.

    Sources52–53

  • Christadelphians

    The Christadelphian Statement of Faith confesses Jesus as the Son of God begotten of the Virgin Mary by the Holy Spirit, and rejects the teachings that God is three persons and that the Son was co-eternal with the Father.

    Sources54–55

  • Iglesia ni Cristo

    The Iglesia ni Cristo's official magazine argues that Jesus Christ is a man and not God, and that only the Father is the true God.

    Sources56

  • Unitarian Universalists

    The Unitarian Universalist Association prescribes no single view of Jesus and describes most Unitarian Universalist Christians as believing in God but not in the Trinity.

    Sources57–58

  • Jewish scholarship (for comparison)

    Joseph Klausner's Yeshu ha-Notzri (1922) set Jesus within Palestinian and Pharisaic Judaism, while holding that his teaching contained a kernel of opposition to Judaism.

    Walter Riggans traces a wider Jewish reclamation of Jesus through Leo Baeck, Klausner, Martin Buber, who called Jesus a great brother but not the Messiah, David Flusser, Geza Vermes and Pinchas Lapide, and records the critiques of Samuel Sandmel and Jacob Neusner. Vermes argued that Jesus could be understood only within Judaism, and Amy-Jill Levine's The Misunderstood Jew (2006) addresses the Church's portrayal of the Jewish Jesus.

    Sources59–62

  • Islam: Jesus in the Qur'an (for comparison)

    The Qur'an names Jesus ʿĪsā, son of Mary, prophet and Messiah.

    Qur'an 4:171 calls him a messenger of God, God's word and a spirit from him, forbids speaking of a Trinity and affirms that God is one and above having a son, and in Qur'an 5:116 God asks Jesus whether he told people to take him and his mother as gods, and Jesus disclaims any right to say so. Most Muslim commentators take Qur'an 4:157 to 158 as denying the crucifixion, while verses such as 3:55 and 19:33 have been read as implying a real death.

    Sources63–65

How the field developed

  1. Early church
    c. 110

    Ignatius of Antioch, known from seven letters written on his way to martyrdom, insists in his letter to the Smyrnaeans that Christ was truly born of a virgin, truly nailed to the cross under Pontius Pilate and truly suffered, against those who held that he only seemed to suffer.6667

  2. Early church
    c. 190 to 200

    Pope Victor excommunicates Theodotus of Byzantium, who taught dynamic monarchianism or adoptionism; Paul of Samosata, who later taught it, is condemned at Antioch in about 266 to 268.68

  3. Late antiquity
    325

    Arius, a presbyter of Alexandria, has taught from about 319 that the Son was created out of nothing; Constantine convokes the Council of Nicaea, whose creed confesses the Son as of the same substance with the Father, and Arius is anathematized and exiled. In Henri Leclercq's tentative reconstruction the creed was drawn up on 19 June.697071

  4. Late antiquity
    May 381

    The First Council of Constantinople, called by Theodosius, condemns the Arians, the Macedonians and the Apollinarians in its first canon. Apollinaris of Laodicea had taught that Christ had no human rational mind, the Logos taking its place, and the answer of the Fathers was that what Christ has not assumed he has not healed.7273

  5. Late antiquity
    22 June 431

    The Council of Ephesus opens under Cyril of Alexandria's presidency and deposes Nestorius, who had preached against the title Theotokos. In April 433 the Formula of Reunion confesses Christ perfect God and perfect man and Mary the Theotokos.747576

  6. Late antiquity
    8 October to 1 November 451

    The Council of Chalcedon approves its definition on 22 October: one and the same Christ, acknowledged in two natures, without confusion, without change, without division, without separation. It receives the creeds of Nicaea and Constantinople, two of Cyril's letters and Leo's Tome.7778

  7. Late antiquity
    5 May to 2 June 553

    The Second Council of Constantinople, held under Justinian, condemns the Three Chapters, the person and writings of Theodore of Mopsuestia and writings of Theodoret and Ibas; whether it also condemned Origen is a real scholarly disagreement.7980

  8. Medieval
    7 November 680 to 16 September 681

    The Third Council of Constantinople defines that in each of Christ's two natures there is a perfect operation and a perfect will, and condemns the authors of monothelitism, including Pope Honorius.81

  9. Medieval
    1095 to 1098

    Anselm writes Cur Deus Homo, by the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy's dating, while Britannica has it completed in 1099. It argues that only one who is both fully God and fully human could make satisfaction for sin, and that Christ's death was not a ransom paid to the Devil.8283

  10. Reformation
    1577

    The Formula of Concord sets out the Lutheran position, quoting Luther's words that wherever God is placed, the humanity must also be placed. The Reformed, who accepted the first two kinds of communication of attributes, rejected the third, by which divine majesty is given to the human nature, holding that omnipresence is inconsistent with the limits of a human body, and taught the extra Calvinisticum.842530

  11. Modern
    1835 to 1836

    David Friedrich Strauss's Das Leben Jesu kritisch bearbeitet rejects both supernatural and rationalist readings of the Gospels in favor of a mythical interpretation and sets off the search for the historical Jesus.85

  12. Modern
    1906

    Albert Schweitzer's The Quest of the Historical Jesus shows that each portrait of Jesus projected its author's ideals onto him and brings the first quest to an end. A new quest began later, with Ernst Käsemann's lecture of 1953.86

  13. Modern
    1954

    Karl Rahner sets the agenda in Catholic theology with his essay Chalkedon: Ende oder Anfang?, published in the third volume of Grillmeier and Bacht's Das Konzil von Chalkedon and reprinted the same year in the first volume of his Schriften zur Theologie.878889

  14. Modern
    10 May 1973

    Pope Paul VI and Pope Shenouda III confess Christ perfect God in his divinity and perfect man in his humanity and set up a joint commission. From 1973 the churches divided in the fifth century sign a series of agreed statements on Christ.90

  15. Modern
    1989 to 1990

    At Anba Bishoy in 1989 and Chambésy in 1990, the Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox agree on one composite hypostasis, with the natures distinguished in contemplation only, and that he who wills and acts is the one hypostasis of the Logos incarnate. The Chambésy statement asks the churches to lift the past anathemas; such statements do not by themselves restore full communion.1514

  16. Modern
    2025

    The 1700th anniversary of Nicaea is marked by the International Theological Commission's document of 3 April, the World Council of Churches' Sixth World Conference on Faith and Order (24 to 28 October), Pope Leo XIV's apostolic letter In Unitate Fidei (23 November) and his ecumenical prayer with Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew I at İznik on 28 November.6919293

How to study christology

The questions it asks

  • How quickly, and in what terms, did the first followers of Jesus come to speak of him and to worship him in ways otherwise reserved for God?949596
  • What background explains that devotion: Jewish monotheism and mediator figures, Jewish messianic texts or Greco-Roman deification?979899
  • Do the New Testament writings share one Christology?100101102
  • How are divine and human related in the one person of Christ?103104
  • Did the Son give anything up in becoming human, and what did his self-emptying consist in?105106
  • What did Christ know of himself, and could he have sinned?5107
  • Did Christ assume a fallen human nature, and where is his humanity now?1082530
  • How does Christ save?109

Its method

Start

  1. Read the New Testament evidence through the titles given to Jesus, through early devotional practice or through the identity of the God of Israel, keeping apart whether the earliest Christians worshipped Jesus, whether they included him within the identity of the one God, and whether they thought of him in the later categories of nature and person1109496.

  2. Study the formation of the doctrine from the acts of the councils and the writings of the Fathers, in critical editions such as the Acta Conciliorum Oecumenicorum and translations such as Price and Gaddis's Acts of the Council of Chalcedon (2005)111112.

  3. Place historical Jesus research in its periods: the first quest, brought to an end by Schweitzer in 1906; the new quest, from Käsemann's lecture of 1953; and the third quest, which stresses Jesus's Jewish setting and his eschatological message86113.

  4. Weigh the criteria of authenticity, which Chris Keith and Anthony Le Donne questioned in 2012, arguing for approaches based on social memory114.

  5. Choose whether to begin from above, with the eternal deity of the Son, or from below, from Jesus's history115.

  6. Read Christ's person and work together, and use no single approach alone, since historical study is never neutral116.

  7. Test the coherence of the doctrine of the Incarnation with the tools of analytic philosophy, as philosophers of religion have done since the 1980s with models such as two minds and reduplication105117118.

  8. Read the Old Testament Christologically within the canon, as theological interpretation of Scripture does102119.

  9. Begin from a particular situation, such as poverty, racism, the experience of women or the religious world of Africa or Asia, and ask who Christ is for people in it120.

What to read

Its primary witnesses

  • The New Testament: Paul's undisputed letters, the Synoptic Gospels, Hebrews, the Johannine writings and Revelation, each studied on its own terms.
  • The letters of Ignatius of Antioch, among them his letter to the Smyrnaeans6667.
  • Irenaeus's Against Heresies, Tertullian's Against Praxeas and Origen's De Principiis12112280.
  • The Nicene Creed (325) and the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed (381), in Tanner's Decrees of the Ecumenical Councils and in the acts of Chalcedon123111112.
  • Cyril's Third Letter to Nestorius and the Twelve Anathemas (430), the Formula of Reunion (433) and the Tome of Leo (13 June 449)123111124.
  • The Definition of Chalcedon (22 October 451), the Athanasian Creed (late fifth to sixth century) and the Henotikon of Zeno (482)123111125126127.
  • The decrees of Constantinople II on the Three Chapters (553), Constantinople III on the two wills (680 to 681) and Nicaea II on images (787)123111.
  • John of Damascus's Exact Exposition of the Orthodox Faith, Book III, and Babai the Great's Book of the Union12823.
  • The confessions of the Reformation: the Formula of Concord, the Belgic Confession, the Heidelberg Catechism and the Westminster Confession25282726.
  • Collections of creeds and magisterial texts: Pelikan and Hotchkiss's Creeds and Confessions of Faith in the Christian Tradition (2003), Schaff's Creeds of Christendom and Denzinger and Hünermann's Enchiridion symbolorum (43rd edition, 2012)125127126.

Standard reference works

  • Aloys Grillmeier's Christ in Christian Tradition: vol. 1, second revised edition (1975), and vol. 2, part 4, with Theresia Hainthaler (1996)129130.
  • J. N. D. Kelly's Early Christian Doctrines, fifth revised edition (1977), and Jaroslav Pelikan's The Christian Tradition, vol. 1 (1971)131132.
  • Gerald O'Collins's Christology: A Biblical, Historical, and Systematic Study of Jesus, second edition (Oxford University Press, 2009)133.
  • The Oxford Handbook of Christology, edited by Francesca Aran Murphy (2015), and the T&T Clark Handbook of Christology, edited by Darren O. Sumner and Chris Tilling (2025)134135136.
  • The Cambridge Companion to Jesus, edited by Markus Bockmuehl (2001)137.
  • Donald Macleod's The Person of Christ (1998) and Millard J. Erickson's The Word Became Flesh (1991)138139.
  • Khaled Anatolios's Retrieving Nicaea (2011) and Brian E. Daley's God Visible: Patristic Christology Reconsidered (2018)140141142.
  • Christology, Ancient and Modern, edited by Oliver D. Crisp and Fred Sanders (2013)143.
  • Journals including the Journal of Theological Studies (1899), the Scottish Journal of Theology (1948), the International Journal of Systematic Theology (1999), the Journal for the Study of the Historical Jesus (2003) and the Journal of Analytic Theology (2013)144145146147148.
  • Digital corpora such as the Thesaurus Linguae Graecae, the Library of Latin Texts, Sources Chrétiennes and the Atla Religion Database149150151152.

Scholarship referenced in this study

The works below shaped the field and are cited in this study, from the earliest to the most recent. Hover over a book, or select it, to see its author and the sources behind it.

  • c. 318 to 335On the IncarnationAthanasius of AlexandriaOn the Incarnation (c. 318 to 335)Athanasius of Alexandria (c. 293 to 373)Sources153
  • 430Twelve AnathemasCyril of AlexandriaTwelve Anathemas (430)Cyril of Alexandria (c. 375 to 444)Sources154
  • 449Tome to FlavianLeo ITome to Flavian (449)Leo I (c. 400 to 461)Sources155
  • c. 612Book of the UnionBabai the GreatBook of the Union (c. 612)Babai the Great (c. 551 to 628)Sources156
  • c. 743Exact Exposition of the Orthodox FaithJohn of DamascusExact Exposition of the Orthodox Faith (c. 743)John of Damascus (c. 675 to 749)Sources157
  • 1095 to 1098Cur Deus HomoAnselm of CanterburyCur Deus Homo (1095 to 1098)Anselm of Canterbury (c. 1033 to 1109)Sources82
  • 1272 to 1273Summa Theologiae III, questions 1 to 59Thomas AquinasSumma Theologiae III, questions 1 to 59 (1272 to 1273)Thomas Aquinas (1225 to 1274)Sources158
  • 1821 to 1822The Christian FaithFriedrich SchleiermacherThe Christian Faith (1821 to 1822)Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768 to 1834)Sources159
  • 1977The Council of Chalcedon Re-ExaminedV. C. SamuelThe Council of Chalcedon Re-Examined (1977)V. C. Samuel (1912 to 1998)Sources19
  • 1984Christ as Our AncestorCharles NyamitiChrist as Our Ancestor (1984)Charles Nyamiti (1931 to 19 May 2020)Sources160
  • 1992She Who IsElizabeth A. JohnsonShe Who Is (1992)Elizabeth A. JohnsonSources161
  • 2008Jesus and the God of IsraelRichard BauckhamJesus and the God of Israel (2008)Richard BauckhamSources162

Listed because this study draws on their published work; no association with or endorsement of Numa Verse is implied. Suggest a correction.

Key terms

The words that carry the most weight in this field, each defined from the sources of this study. Turn a card over to read its definition.

The union of divine and human natures in the one person (hypostasis) of the Word; before Nicaea hypostasis and ousia were used as synonyms, and the distinction emerged through the controversies103.

Of the same substance: the Nicene term for the Son's relation to the Father, and at Chalcedon also for Christ's relation to us in his humanity7077.

God-bearer, the title of Mary at the center of the Nestorian controversy74.

Cyril of Alexandria's formula, one incarnate nature of God the Word, which the Oriental Orthodox churches keep as their confession16317.

The communication of attributes: the properties of either nature are ascribed to the one person, so that the death of the man Jesus can be called God's death25.

The teaching that Christ's human nature has no subsistence of its own and subsists in the person of the Word164.

The teaching of two wills and two operations in Christ, defined at Constantinople III (680 to 681)819.

Self-emptying, from Philippians 2:7; kenotic Christologies hold that the Son set aside or limited divine properties in the Incarnation105.

The Reformed teaching that the Word, wholly united to the flesh, also remains wholly beyond it30.

The Syriac terms of the Church of the East: nature, the individual instance of a nature, and person22.

Where it sits

Builds on

Christology

Leads to

From the Journal

An empty ancient basilica with stone columns lit by dawn light through high windowsAI-generated imageChristology

What did the early Church confess about who Christ is?

From the first decades, Christians called Jesus Lord. Over four centuries, councils refined that confession into one person, truly God and truly human, though churches still describe the union in different words.Numa Verse Editorial · November 2026 · 6 min read

Questions people ask

Scholars hold three main positions. Wilhelm Bousset's Kyrios Christos (1913) argued for a gradual development, and Michael Kok groups James Dunn, Maurice Casey and Anthony Harvey as scholars who hold that the divinization of Jesus is not attested before John or Ignatius9495. Larry Hurtado and Richard Bauckham argue that devotion to Jesus appears in the earliest sources, within Jewish monotheism, and Bauckham states that the earliest Christology was already the highest9496165. Bart D. Ehrman's How Jesus Became God (2014) distinguishes exaltation Christology from incarnation Christology, while the response volume How God Became Jesus, edited by Michael F. Bird, argues that Jesus's exalted status in belief and worship appears in the earliest sources shortly after his death166167.

The Council of Chalcedon (451) defined one person in two natures, without confusion, change, division or separation77. The Oriental Orthodox churches confess one nature of God the Word incarnate and reject the name monophysite, and the Church of the East confesses two kyane and two qnome in one parsopa and regards the name Nestorian as polemical171622. Agreed statements from 1973 to 1996 have followed, and joint commissions now often describe differences once taken for heresy as differences of terms, though full communion between the divided churches has not followed901524168.

Both confess Christ as one person in two natures, each keeping its properties, but differ over whether divine properties are communicated to the human nature2530. The Formula of Concord (1577) holds that the human nature has received a majesty through the personal union, so that Christ can be present with his body wherever he wills, especially in the Lord's Supper25. The Heidelberg Catechism holds that in his human nature Christ is not now on earth while in his divinity he is never absent27. The Leuenberg Agreement of 1973 records the different emphases of the two traditions and sets aside the past condemnations31.

The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy states the problem: divinity seems to require omnipotence, omniscience and moral perfection, while humanity involves limitation105. It lists four responses: deny the law of non-contradiction, adopt relative identity, revise which properties divinity or humanity require, or show that Christ does not have a property and its complement in the same respect105. Thomas V. Morris proposes that the incarnate Son has an eternal divine mind and an earthly human mind, and Timothy Pawl argues that the arguments for incoherence fail117118. The Myth of God Incarnate (1977), edited by John Hick, treated the Incarnation as a metaphor rather than a metaphysical claim, a view Hick developed in The Metaphor of God Incarnate (1993)169170.

Leonardo Boff's Jesus Cristo Libertador (1972) argues that each age must discover the meaning of Christ anew and that Latin American Christology must have characteristics of its own171172. Diane B. Stinton groups contemporary African Christologies by the images they use: Jesus as life-giver and healer, as mediator and ancestor, as leader, king, chief and liberator, and as loved one173174. Ancestor Christology, in Charles Nyamiti, Bénézet Bujo, Kwame Bediako and John Pobee, is the most discussed of these models, and critics have raised syncretism and a possible weakening of Christ's divinity175176177178. Aloysius Pieris holds that Asia is marked both by overwhelming poverty and by deep religiousness, so that Christ's double baptism is in the Jordan of Asian religion and on the Calvary of Asian poverty179.

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  1. 1Catechism of the Catholic Church, Part One, Section Two, Chapter Two, Article 3, paragraphs 456 to 483 (Holy See)https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P1J.HTM (opens in a new tab)
  2. 2Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, Dominus Iesus, 6 August 2000 (Holy See)https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_20000806_dominus-iesus_en.html (opens in a new tab)
  3. 3International Theological Commission, "Select Questions on Christology" (1979) (Holy See)https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/cti_documents/rc_cti_1979_cristologia_en.html (opens in a new tab)
  4. 4International Theological Commission, index of published documents (Holy See)https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/cti_documents/rc_cti_index-doc-pubbl_en.html (opens in a new tab)
  5. 5International Theological Commission, The Consciousness of Christ concerning Himself and His Mission (1985) (Holy See)https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/cti_documents/rc_cti_1985_coscienza-gesu_en.html (opens in a new tab)
  6. 6International Theological Commission, communique on "Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior: 1700th Anniversary of the Ecumenical Council of Nicaea", 3 April 2025 (Holy See)https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/cti_documents/rc_cti_doc_20250403_comunicato-1700-nicea_en.html (opens in a new tab)
  7. 7Ronald Roberson, The Eastern Christian Churches: Introduction (CNEWA)https://cnewa.org/?p=127694 (opens in a new tab)
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  9. 9"Monothelite" (Encyclopaedia Britannica)https://www.britannica.com/topic/Monothelite (opens in a new tab)
  10. 10"Saint Maximus the Confessor" (Encyclopaedia Britannica)https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Maximus-the-Confessor (opens in a new tab)
  11. 11"Hesychasm" (Encyclopaedia Britannica)https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hesychasm (opens in a new tab)
  12. 12"Saint Gregory Palamas" (Encyclopaedia Britannica)https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Gregory-Palamas (opens in a new tab)
  13. 13Theosis in the Orthodox Tradition (Conference of European Churches)https://ceceurope.org/storage/app/media/uploads/2015/08/CSCtheosisorthodox.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  14. 14Joint Commission of the Theological Dialogue between the Orthodox Church and the Oriental Orthodox Churches, Second Agreed Statement, Chambésy, 1990 (Syriac Orthodox Patriarchate)https://dss-syriacpatriarchate.org/second-agreed-statement-1990/?lang=en (opens in a new tab)
  15. 15Agreed Statements, Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Dialogue, 1989 and 1990, PDF (Trinity Orthodox)https://www.old.trinityorthodox.ca/sites/default/files/Agreed%20Statements-Orthodox-Oriental%20Orthodox%20Dialogue-1989-1990.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  16. 16"Two Families of Orthodox" (Coptic Orthodox Diocese of Los Angeles)https://www.lacopts.org/orthodoxy/orthodox-life/two-families-of-orthodox/ (opens in a new tab)
  17. 17Pope Shenouda III, The Nature of Christ, "The Orthodox Concept" (St-Takla.org)https://st-takla.org/books/en/pope-shenouda-iii/nature-of-christ/orthodox-concept.html (opens in a new tab)
  18. 18"Christology" (Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church)https://mosc.in/the_church/theology/christology/ (opens in a new tab)
  19. 19"Fr. Dr. V. C. Samuel: Scholar of the Millennium (1912 to 1998)" (One In Christ)https://oneinchrist.in/fr-dr-v-c-samuel-nov-18-i-scholar-of-the-millennium-perfect-guru-christian-philosopher-ecumenical-leader-distinguished-church-historian-writer-orator-theologian-i-1912-1998/ (opens in a new tab)
  20. 20The Council of Chalcedon re-examined, bibliography record (Syriaca.org)https://syri.ac/bibliography/538822118 (opens in a new tab)
  21. 21"The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church" (CNEWA)https://cnewa.org/eastern-christian-churches/oriental-orthodox-churches/the-ethiopian-orthodox-tewahedo-church/ (opens in a new tab)
  22. 22Sebastian Brock, "The Christology of the Church of the East" (Beth Kokheh, Assyrian Church of the East)https://bethkokheh.assyrianchurch.org/articles/175 (opens in a new tab)
  23. 23Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage, "Babai the Great" (Beth Mardutho)https://dev.gedsh.bethmardutho.org/entry/Babai-the-Great.html (opens in a new tab)
  24. 24Common Christological Declaration between the Catholic Church and the Assyrian Church of the East, 11 November 1994 (Holy See)https://www.vatican.va/content/john-paul-ii/en/speeches/1994/november/documents/hf_jp-ii_spe_19941111_dichiarazione-cristologica.html (opens in a new tab)
  25. 25Formula of Concord, Solid Declaration VIII, "The Person of Christ" (Concordia Publishing House)https://bookofconcord.cph.org/en/formula-of-concord-solid-declaration/viii_the_person_of_christ (opens in a new tab)
  26. 26Westminster Confession of Faith, Chapter 8 (Bible Presbyterian Church)https://bpc.org/wcf-ch-8 (opens in a new tab)
  27. 27Heidelberg Catechism (Christian Reformed Church in North America)https://www.crcna.org/welcome/beliefs/confessions/heidelberg-catechism (opens in a new tab)
  28. 28Belgic Confession (Christian Reformed Church in North America)https://www.crcna.org/welcome/beliefs/confessions/belgic-confession (opens in a new tab)
  29. 29Second Helvetic Confession (Christian Classics Ethereal Library)https://www.ccel.org/creeds/helvetic.htm (opens in a new tab)
  30. 30KJ Drake, "Behold Something Marvelous: The Chalcedonian Logic of the Extra Calvinisticum" (Modern Reformation)https://modernreformation.org/resources/articles/behold-something-marvelous-the-chalcedonian-logic-of-the-extra-calvinisticum (opens in a new tab)
  31. 31Concorde de Leuenberg, 16 mars 1973, PDF (UEPAL)https://acteurs.uepal.fr/public_files/file/concorde_de_leuenberg_16_mars_1973.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  32. 32Philip Schaff, Creeds of Christendom vol. 3, Thirty-Nine Articles, 1571 text (Christian Classics Ethereal Library)https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds3.iv.xi.html (opens in a new tab)
  33. 33"Articles of Religion" (The United Methodist Church)https://www.umc.org/en/content/articles-of-religion (opens in a new tab)
  34. 34Baptist Faith and Message 2000 (Southern Baptist Convention)https://bfm.sbc.net/bfm2000/ (opens in a new tab)
  35. 35Second London Baptist Confession (1689), Chapter 8 (Reformed Reader)https://www.reformedreader.org/ccc/1689lbc/english/Chapter08.htm (opens in a new tab)
  36. 36Articles of Faith, 2023 Manual, PDF, October 2024 (Church of the Nazarene)https://nazarene.org/sites/default/files/2024-10/ArticlesOfFaith%28English%29.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  37. 37Our beliefs (Salvationist, The Salvation Army UK)https://www.salvationist.org.uk/faith/our-beliefs (opens in a new tab)
  38. 38Statement of Fundamental Truths (Assemblies of God)https://ag.org/Beliefs/Statement-of-Fundamental-Truths (opens in a new tab)
  39. 39"Our Beliefs" (United Pentecostal Church International)https://www.upci.org/about/our-beliefs (opens in a new tab)
  40. 40Confession of Faith in a Mennonite Perspective, 1995, PDF (Mennonite Church USA)https://www.mennoniteusa.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/Confession-of-Faith-In-a-Mennonite-Perspective.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  41. 41Daniel Rempel, "Disability contra Docetism: Following the disabled Christ", Vision 25.2, Fall 2024 (press.palni.org)https://press.palni.org/ojs/index.php/vision/article/download/929/773 (opens in a new tab)
  42. 4228 Fundamental Beliefs, 2015 Edition, PDF (General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists Ministerial Association)https://cdn.ministerialassociation.org/docs/2017-NewResources/884 (opens in a new tab)
  43. 43Woodrow W. Whidden, "Questions on Doctrine: Then and now", August 2003 (Ministry magazine)https://www.ministrymagazine.org/archive/2003/08/questions-on-doctrine-then-and-now.html (opens in a new tab)
  44. 44The Lausanne Covenant, 1974 (Lausanne Movement)https://lausanne.org/statement/lausanne-covenant (opens in a new tab)
  45. 45Statement of Faith (National Association of Evangelicals)https://nae.org/statement-of-faith/ (opens in a new tab)
  46. 46The Ground of the Unity (Moravian Church British Province)https://www.moravian.org.uk/about/ground-of-the-unity (opens in a new tab)
  47. 47Quaker faith & practice, passage 19.02, "A gathered people", George Fox, 1647 (Britain Yearly Meeting)https://qfp.quaker.org.uk/passage/19-02/ (opens in a new tab)
  48. 48"African Instituted Churches", church families (World Council of Churches)https://www.oikoumene.org/church-families/african-instituted-churches (opens in a new tab)
  49. 49Kimbanguist Church (EJCSK) Timeline (World Religions and Spirituality Project)https://wrldrels.org/?p=21679 (opens in a new tab)
  50. 50"Who Is Jesus Christ?", Enjoy Life Forever!, lesson 15 (jw.org)https://www.jw.org/en/library/books/enjoy-life-forever/section-2/lesson-15/ (opens in a new tab)
  51. 51"Who Is Michael the Archangel?" (jw.org)https://www.jw.org/en/bible-teachings/questions/archangel-michael/ (opens in a new tab)
  52. 52Gospel Topics, "Jesus Christ" (The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints)https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/gospel-topics/jesus-christ?lang=eng (opens in a new tab)
  53. 53Gospel Topics, "Godhead" (The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints)https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/gospel-topics/godhead?lang=eng (opens in a new tab)
  54. 54The Christadelphian Statement of Faith (christadelphia.org)https://www.christadelphia.org/basf.php (opens in a new tab)
  55. 55BASF, PDF (christadelphianvideo.org)https://christadelphianvideo.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/BASF.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  56. 56"Biblical proofs that Christ is not God", 2021 (Pasugo: God's Message)https://www.pasugo.com.ph/biblical-proofs-that-christ-is-not-god/ (opens in a new tab)
  57. 57Christianity, Beliefs (Unitarian Universalist Association)https://www.uua.org/beliefs/who-we-are/beliefs/christianity (opens in a new tab)
  58. 58"Unitarian Universalist Views of Jesus" (Unitarian Universalist Association)https://www.uua.org/node/26379 (opens in a new tab)
  59. 59"Joseph Klausner's 'Jesus of Nazareth' (1922): A Modern Jewish Study of the Founding Figure of Christianity" (Jewish and Christian Relations project, School of Divinity, University of Edinburgh)https://jnjr.div.ed.ac.uk/primary-sources/modern/joseph-klausners-jesus-of-nazareth-1922-a-modern-jewish-study-of-the-founding-figure-of-christianity/ (opens in a new tab)
  60. 60Walter Riggans, "The Jewish reclamation of Jesus and its implications for Jewish-Christian relations", Themelios 18.1 (The Gospel Coalition)https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/themelios/article/the-jewish-reclamation-of-jesus-and-its-implications-for-jewish-christian-relations/ (opens in a new tab)
  61. 61"Geza Vermes, renowned Jesus scholar, dies at 88", 12 May 2013 (Times of Israel)https://www.timesofisrael.com/geza-vermes-renowned-jesus-scholar-dies-at-88/ (opens in a new tab)
  62. 62"The Misunderstood Jew: The Church and the Scandal of the Jewish Jesus" (Publishers Weekly)https://publishersweekly.com/9780060789664 (opens in a new tab)
  63. 63J. Dudley Woodberry, "The Muslim Understanding of Jesus", Word & World 16.2 (1996), pages 173 to 178 (Luther Seminary)https://wordandworld.luthersem.edu/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/16-2_Islam/The%20Muslim%20Understanding%20of%20Jesus.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  64. 64Qur'an 4:171 (Quran.com)https://quran.com/4/171 (opens in a new tab)
  65. 65Qur'an 5:116, translated by Mustafa Khattab, The Clear Quran (Quran.com)https://quran.com/5/116 (opens in a new tab)
  66. 66"Saint Ignatius of Antioch" (Encyclopaedia Britannica)https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Ignatius-of-Antioch (opens in a new tab)
  67. 67Ignatius of Antioch, Epistle to the Smyrnaeans, Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 1 (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0109.htm (opens in a new tab)
  68. 68"Monarchians", The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10448a.htm (opens in a new tab)
  69. 69W. Barry, "Arianism", The Catholic Encyclopedia, 1907 (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01707c.htm (opens in a new tab)
  70. 70Henri Leclercq, "First Council of Nicaea", The Catholic Encyclopedia, 1911 (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11044a.htm (opens in a new tab)
  71. 71"First Council of Nicaea" (Encyclopaedia Britannica)https://www.britannica.com/event/Council-of-Nicaea-Christianity-325 (opens in a new tab)
  72. 72"Apollinarianism", The Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01615b.htm (opens in a new tab)
  73. 73Thomas Shahan, "First Council of Constantinople", The Catholic Encyclopedia, 1908 (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04308a.htm (opens in a new tab)
  74. 74John Chapman, "Nestorius and Nestorianism", The Catholic Encyclopedia, 1911 (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10755a.htm (opens in a new tab)
  75. 75John Chapman, "Council of Ephesus", The Catholic Encyclopedia, 1909 (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05491a.htm (opens in a new tab)
  76. 76Cyril of Alexandria, Letter to John of Antioch, April 433, Greek text (Early Church Texts)https://earlychurchtexts.com/main/cyrilofalex/letter_to_john_of_antioch.shtml (opens in a new tab)
  77. 77Francis Schaefer, "Council of Chalcedon", The Catholic Encyclopedia, 1908 (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03555a.htm (opens in a new tab)
  78. 78"Council of Chalcedon" (Encyclopaedia Britannica)https://www.britannica.com/event/Council-of-Chalcedon (opens in a new tab)
  79. 79Thomas Shahan, "Second Council of Constantinople", The Catholic Encyclopedia, 1908 (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04308b.htm (opens in a new tab)
  80. 80F. Prat, "Origen and Origenism", The Catholic Encyclopedia, 1911 (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11306b.htm (opens in a new tab)
  81. 81Thomas Shahan, "Third Council of Constantinople", The Catholic Encyclopedia, 1908 (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04310a.htm (opens in a new tab)
  82. 82"Anselm of Canterbury" (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/anselm/ (opens in a new tab)
  83. 83"Cur Deus homo?" (Encyclopaedia Britannica)https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cur-Deus-homo (opens in a new tab)
  84. 84"The Communicatio Idiomatum", New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge vol. 3 (Christian Classics Ethereal Library)https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc/encyc03/htm/ii.6.8.htm (opens in a new tab)
  85. 85"The Life of Jesus Critically Examined" (Encyclopaedia Britannica)https://britannica.com/topic/The-Life-of-Jesus-Critically-Examined (opens in a new tab)
  86. 86Michael F. Bird, "Shouldn't Evangelicals Participate in the 'Third Quest for the Historical Jesus'?", Themelios 29.2 (The Gospel Coalition)https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/themelios/article/shouldnt-evangelicals-participate-in-the-third-quest-for-the-historical-jesus/ (opens in a new tab)
  87. 87Lothar Ullrich, Chalkedon als Ende und Anfang (Analecta Cracoviensia)https://czasopisma.upjp2.edu.pl/analectacracoviensia/article/download/3240/3105/5196 (opens in a new tab)
  88. 88Karl Rahner, Schriften zur Theologie, table of contents (Universitätsbibliothek Basel)https://ub.unibas.ch/tox/IDSLUZ/000131237/PDF (opens in a new tab)
  89. 89R. Gögler, review of Das Konzil von Chalkedon I-III (Münchener Theologische Zeitschrift)https://mthz.ub.uni-muenchen.de/MThZ/article/download/1955H4S339-342/411/600 (opens in a new tab)
  90. 90Common Declaration of Pope Paul VI and Pope Shenouda III, 10 May 1973 (Holy See)https://www.vatican.va/content/paul-vi/en/speeches/1973/may/documents/hf_p-vi_spe_19730510_dichiarazione-comune.html (opens in a new tab)
  91. 91"Sixth World Conference on Faith and Order" (World Council of Churches)https://oikoumene.org/events/sixth-world-conference-on-faith-and-order (opens in a new tab)
  92. 92In Unitate Fidei, Apostolic Letter on the 1700th Anniversary of the Council of Nicaea (Holy See)https://www.vatican.va/content/leo-xiv/en/apost_letters/documents/20251123-in-unitate-fidei.html (opens in a new tab)
  93. 93"Pope Leo XIV Marks Nicaea Anniversary, Urges Christians to Overcome Divisions", CNA, 28 November 2025 (National Catholic Register)https://www.ncregister.com/cna/pope-leo-xiv-marks-nicaea-anniversary-urges-christians-to-overcome-divisions (opens in a new tab)
  94. 94Larry W. Hurtado, "Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity: Recent Scholarly Developments", April 2003 (The Bible and Interpretation, University of Arizona)https://bibleinterp.arizona.edu/node/3088 (opens in a new tab)
  95. 95Michael J. Kok, "Critical Questions for the Early High Christology Club", July 2015 (The Bible and Interpretation)https://bibleinterp.arizona.edu/opeds/2015/07/kok398030 (opens in a new tab)
  96. 96Review of Richard Bauckham, Jesus and the God of Israel, Themelios (The Gospel Coalition)https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/themelios/review/jesus-and-the-god-of-israel-god-crucified-and-other-studies-on-the-new-testaments-christology-of-divine-identity/ (opens in a new tab)
  97. 97Crispin Fletcher-Louis, Jesus Monotheism, vol. 1 (Wipf and Stock, Cascade)https://wipfandstock.com/9781498236256/jesus-monotheism/ (opens in a new tab)
  98. 98Review of Boyarin, The Jewish Gospels, 19 March 2012 (Publishers Weekly)https://www.publishersweekly.com/9781595584687 (opens in a new tab)
  99. 99"M. David Litwa's 2014 Book Iesus Deus and Walter J. Ong's Thought" (University Digital Conservancy)https://conservancy.umn.edu/items/72c5a3e3-2189-454c-94cf-6fb9ac3af9ef (opens in a new tab)
  100. 100David B. Capes, "A Man Attested by God", 9 September 2016 (davidbcapes.com)https://davidbcapes.com/2016/09/09/a-man-attested-by-god/ (opens in a new tab)
  101. 101Gathercole, The preexistent Son (WorldCat)https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/68786800 (opens in a new tab)
  102. 102Benjamin L. Gladd, review of Richard B. Hays, Reading Backwards (Baylor, 2014), Reformed Faith & Practice 1.1, May 2016 (journal.rts.edu)https://journal.rts.edu/review/reading-backwards-figural-christology-and-the-fourfold-gospel-witness/ (opens in a new tab)
  103. 103Edward Pace, "Hypostatic Union", The Catholic Encyclopedia, 1910 (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07610b.htm (opens in a new tab)
  104. 104Anthony Maas, "Christology", The Catholic Encyclopedia, 1912 (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14597a.htm (opens in a new tab)
  105. 105David Werther, "Incarnation" (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy)https://iep.utm.edu/incarnat/ (opens in a new tab)
  106. 106J. David Moser, "The Humility of the Eternal Son: Reformed Kenoticism and the Repair of Chalcedon: A Review", 16 February 2022 (Ad Fontes)https://adfontesjournal.com/archives/the-humility-of-the-eternal-son-reformed-kenoticism-and-the-repair-of-chalcedon-a-review/ (opens in a new tab)
  107. 107Kevin DeYoung, "Theological Primer: Impeccability", 14 November 2019 (The Gospel Coalition)https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/blogs/kevin-deyoung/theological-primer-impeccability/ (opens in a new tab)
  108. 108Thomas Haviland-Pabst, review of Van Kuiken, Christ's Humanity in Current and Ancient Controversy, Themelios 43.2 (The Gospel Coalition)https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/themelios/review/christs-humanity-in-current-and-ancient-controversy-fallen-or-not/ (opens in a new tab)
  109. 109Joshua C. Thurow, "Atonement", first published 5 April 2023 (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/atonement/ (opens in a new tab)
  110. 110David M. Stanley SJ, "Cullmann's New Testament Christology: An Appraisal", Theological Studies 20.3 (theologicalstudies.net)https://theologicalstudies.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/20.3.3.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  111. 111ACO Series 1, Tome 2, Council of Chalcedon, AD 451 (Fourth Century Christianity)https://www.fourthcentury.com/aco-series-1-tome-2-council-of-chalcedon-ad-451-2/ (opens in a new tab)
  112. 112Review of R. Price and M. Gaddis, The Acts of the Council of Chalcedon, TTH 45, 3 vols, Liverpool UP 2007, The Classical Review (Cambridge Core)https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/classical-review/article/council-of-chalcedon-r-price-m-gaddis-ed-trans-the-acts-of-the-council-of-chalcedon-translated-texts-for-historians-45-in-three-volumes-pp-xxxvi-989-maps-liverpool-liverpool-university-press-2007-paper-45-isbn-9781846311000/A987B6A925EF37B4D17AC7601C459D06 (opens in a new tab)
  113. 113N. T. Wright, publications list, entry for 1982, "Towards a Third Quest? Jesus Then and Now" (NTWrightPage)https://ntwrightpage.com/2016/04/21/updated-publications/ (opens in a new tab)
  114. 114"Jesus, Criteria, and the Demise of Authenticity" (DTS Voice)https://voice.dts.edu/review/jesus-criteria-demise-authenticity/ (opens in a new tab)
  115. 115Donald Macleod, "The Christology of Wolfhart Pannenberg", Themelios 25.2 (The Gospel Coalition)https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/themelios/article/the-christology-of-wolfhart-pannenberg/ (opens in a new tab)
  116. 116Pontifical Biblical Commission, "Scripture and Christology", 1984 (Council of Centers on Jewish-Christian Relations)https://www.ccjr.us/dialogika-resources/documents-and-statements/roman-catholic/vatican-curia/pbc-1984 (opens in a new tab)
  117. 117Review of Morris, The Logic of God Incarnate, Cornell, 1986, New Blackfriars (Cambridge Core)https://resolve.cambridge.org/core/journals/new-blackfriars/article/logic-of-god-incarnate-by-thomas-v-morris-cornell-university-press-ithaca-and-london-1986-pp-220-2195/A73C3BA5ADF22ED0C4AE730C04554552 (opens in a new tab)
  118. 118Joshua R. Farris, review of Pawl, In Defense of Conciliar Christology, 19 September 2017 (Reading Religion)https://readingreligion.org/books/defense-conciliar-christology (opens in a new tab)
  119. 119Christopher R. Seitz, Word Without End (Wycliffe College)https://www.wycliffecollege.ca/word-without-end-old-testament-abiding-theological-witness (opens in a new tab)
  120. 120"Juan Luis Segundo", Boston Collaborative Encyclopedia of Western Theology (Boston University)https://people.bu.edu/wwildman/bce/segundo.htm (opens in a new tab)
  121. 121"Saint Irenaeus" (Encyclopaedia Britannica)https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Irenaeus (opens in a new tab)
  122. 122Tertullian, Against Praxeas, Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 3 (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0317.htm (opens in a new tab)
  123. 123Decrees of the ecumenical councils, catalogue record (UC Berkeley Law Library)https://lawcat.berkeley.edu/record/524178 (opens in a new tab)
  124. 124Leo the Great, Letter 28, the Tome, to Flavian, 13 June 449, Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers II vol. 12 (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3604028.htm (opens in a new tab)
  125. 125Creeds & confessions of faith in the Christian tradition, catalogue record (MNLINK)https://search.mnlink.org/Record/96440550-1b9a-4746-99c3-c8432ad715ad (opens in a new tab)
  126. 126Denzinger Enchiridion Symbolorum 2012 Edition Latin-English (Clear Creek Abbey)https://clearcreekmonks.org/gift-shop/denzinger-enchiridion-symbolorum-2012-edition-latin-english/ (opens in a new tab)
  127. 127Schaff, Creeds of Christendom vol. 1 (Christian Classics Ethereal Library)https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds1 (opens in a new tab)
  128. 128John of Damascus, "Exposition of the Orthodox Faith, Books III-IV", translated by S. D. F. Salmond (EWTN Library)https://www.ewtn.com/catholicism/library/exposition-of-the-orthodox-faith-books-iiiiv-11665 (opens in a new tab)
  129. 129Grillmeier, Christ in Christian Tradition vol. 1, catalogue record (EGST Library)https://libcat.egst.edu.et//bib/2926 (opens in a new tab)
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Page record

Reviewed and approved by Duane Herholdt, BA (Theology), Chief Executive Officer, Numa Verse

Study version: v1.5, 16 October 2026 (theology map v1.27)

Last reviewed: 9 November 2026

How these pages are made

  • 9 November 2026: First draft from the approved study v1.5.