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Canon formation and canonicity

What is canon formation and canonicity?

Canon formation and canonicity is the study of how the books of the Hebrew Bible, the Greek Old Testament and the New Testament were gathered and recognized as Scripture. It examines the lists, councils, confessions and criteria that record that process, asks on what ground a book holds canonical authority, and sets the canons of the churches side by side.

  • 134Sources
  • 12Traditions
  • 16Dated entries
  • 14Minutes

Study v1.1, 23 October 2026

Canon formation and canonicity

At a glance

Why it matters for reading Scripture

Traditions hold different canons, from the Protestant sixty-six books to the Ethiopian Orthodox canon with 1 Enoch. This field shows which books count for whom, and why.

What the study found

The churches hold different canons, from 66 to 81 books; the New Testament's 27 books are first listed in 367, and Nicaea set no list of books.

Where traditions divide

Traditions divide on the deuterocanonical books and on whether the church establishes the canon or recognises it; scholars divide on when the Hebrew canon closed.

How the traditions compare

  • Canon formation and canonicity

    Which books belong in the Bible?

    • the deuterocanonical books
    • whether the church establishes the canon or recognises it
    • when the Hebrew canon closed
    Points of division

  • Judaism (Tanakh)

    Holds the Tanakh, named from its three divisions, Torah, Nevi'im and Ketuvim, and counted as 24 books.

    Lim calls the baraita in Bava Batra 14b to 15a, which sets out their order and writers, the earliest widely agreed rabbinic list. Josephus, Origen and Melito counted the same books as 22, and English Bibles reach 39 by dividing Samuel, Kings and Chronicles, separating Ezra and Nehemiah, and counting the Twelve one by one. Kohelet Rabbah warns that anyone who brings more than the twenty-four books into his house "introduces confusion into his house".

    Sources1–6

  • Protestant churches

    Hold the same books as the Tanakh, counted as 39, which Lim calls "the canon of Pharisaic-Rabbinic Judaism".

    The Westminster Confession names 39 Old Testament and 27 New Testament books and says the Apocrypha "are no part of the canon of the Scripture". The Belgic Confession and Anglican Article VI give the same canonical books but keep a second class, which the church may read "for example of life and instruction of manners" without applying them "to establish any doctrine". Luther's Bible of 1534 set the Apocrypha between the Testaments, and the Formula of Concord gives a rule without a list.

    Sources27–12

  • Roman Catholic Church

    Holds 46 Old Testament and 27 New Testament books, or 45 Old Testament books if Jeremiah and Lamentations are counted as one, as the Catechism of the Catholic Church counts them.

    Its canon is set by conciliar decree: the Council of Florence listed the books on 4 February 1442, and the Council of Trent, on 8 April 1546, pronounced anathema on anyone who does not receive "the said books entire with all their parts" as "sacred and canonical". The First Vatican Council repeated the list on 24 April 1870, and the Clementine Vulgate placed the Prayer of Manasses and 3 and 4 Esdras in an appendix. Protocanonical and deuterocanonical, Reid notes, "are modern terms, not having been used before the sixteenth century".

    Sources13–18

  • Eastern Orthodox Church (Greek usage)

    Takes the Septuagint as its Old Testament, and the Orthodox Study Bible lists 49 Old Testament books.

    The Synod of Jerusalem under Dositheus, in March 1672, judged Wisdom, Judith, Tobit, the History of the Dragon, Susanna, the Maccabees and Sirach "genuine parts of Scripture". Yet Orthodox writers state that no official decision fixes the exact contours of the canon, and Metropolitan Nektarios says "no canon has been given directly by an Ecumenical Council". The books beyond the Hebrew canon are called anagignoskomena, "Readable"; Wisdom supplies readings at many feasts and the Prayer of Manasseh is read at Great Compline.

    Sources19–25

  • Russian Orthodox usage

    Counts the same 39 books as canonical and prints the others marked non-canonical.

    Philaret's Longer Catechism counts the Old Testament at "twenty-two, agreeing therein with the Jews", omits Sirach and others "Because they do not exist in the Hebrew", and gives the New Testament as "Twenty-seven". The Azbuka Very index marks 11 Old Testament books as non-canonical, and its encyclopedia says the canon question was not considered at Russian Church councils.

    Sources26–28

  • Coptic Orthodox Church

    Its diocesan pages call the name Apocrypha a "misnomer" and speak instead of Deuterokanonika ("Second Canon"), listing Tobit, Judith, the Sequel of Esther, Wisdom, Sirach, Baruch, the Sequel of Daniel, 1 and 2 Maccabees and Psalm 151.

    One answer counts 3 and 4 Esdras and 3 and 4 Maccabees as non-canonical. The whole of Revelation is read on the Night of Apocalypse. The position is documented through diocesan pages and a commentary index rather than a Holy Synod decree.

    Sources29–32

  • Syriac Orthodox Church

    Reads the Peshitta, whose New Testament lacks 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, Jude and Revelation; the Harklean version of 616 covers all 27 books.

    The status of the apocrypha "still differs from pandect to pandect". Its lectionary reads both Testaments, "including the apocrypha, except the books of Revelation, Song of Solomon, and I and II Maccabees".

    Sources33–37

  • Armenian Apostolic Church

    The church and the Bible Society of Armenia published in 2001 a Bible of 48 Old Testament and 27 New Testament books.

    Fr Vahan Hovhanessian's catechetical list names, beyond the Hebrew books, Tobit, Judith, the Additions to Esther, Wisdom, Sirach, Baruch with the Letter of Jeremiah, the Additions to Daniel, 1 Esdras, 1 to 3 Maccabees and the Prayer of Manasses. He calls Revelation "one of the books which entered later into the Canon", and numerous Armenian Bibles included 3 Corinthians, "sometimes viewed as a canonical text".

    Sources38–40

  • Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church

    Its corpus is commonly called "the 81 books", in a narrower canon of 54 Old Testament and 27 New Testament books that includes Enoch and Jubilees, and a broader canon of 46 and 35 that adds eight church-order books to the New Testament.

    R. W. Cowley wrote that "The concept of canonicity is regarded more loosely than it is among most other churches", and Bruk Asale states that the church "has never had an officially closed canon of Scripture to date".

    Sources41–44

  • Church of the East

    The fullest list is the metrical catalog of 'Abdisho bar Brika, headed "A.D. 1298" in Badger's translation, whose New Testament has the four Gospels, Acts, "the three Epistles of James, Peter, and John" and "fourteen Epistles of the great Apostle Paul", 22 books in all.

    Kiraz calls the Peshitta the authorized text of the Assyrian Church of the East.

    Sources3345–46

  • The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

    Holds an open canon on principle.

    Its eighth Article of Faith reads: "We believe the Bible to be the word of God as far as it is translated correctly; we also believe the Book of Mormon to be the word of God". Its official, canonized scriptures, the standard works, are the Bible, the Book of Mormon, the Doctrine and Covenants and the Pearl of Great Price.

    Sources47–48

  • Jehovah's Witnesses

    Hold the Hebrew canon closed against the Apocrypha.

    The Watchtower of 1 February 1960 argued that "not one of the Christian Bible writers ever quoted from the Apocrypha". Insight on the Scriptures holds that canonicity "does not rest in whole or in part on whether some council, committee, or community accepts or rejects it".

    Sources49–51

How the field developed

  1. Second Temple
    c. 132 BCE

    The prologue that Ben Sira's grandson wrote for his Greek translation speaks of "the law, the prophets, and the other books of our fathers". Britannica dates the prologue about 132 BCE, while the NABRE introduction and Lim place the translation after 117 BCE.522533

  2. Early church
    90s CE

    Josephus, in Against Apion, gives the first precise number: "only twenty-two books", five of Moses, thirteen of the prophets and four of hymns and precepts. VanderKam notes that no earlier text gives a specific number.5455

  3. Early church
    c. 180

    Irenaeus argues that the Gospels cannot be "either more or fewer in number than they are". Charles Hill concludes that a core canon existed by about 200, while agreement on the disputed books came only in the fourth century.5657

  4. Early church
    c. 324

    Eusebius sorts the books into classes in Church History 3.25: acknowledged, disputed, rejected, and heretical books "to be cast aside as absurd and impious". James, Jude, 2 Peter and 2 and 3 John stand among the disputed books, and he leaves the class of Revelation open.585960

  5. Late antiquity
    325

    The First Council of Nicaea issues twenty canons, none of which is a list of books. No early record of the council, and no eyewitness such as Eusebius or Athanasius, mentions a decision on the canon.6162

  6. Late antiquity
    367

    Athanasius' Thirty-Ninth Festal Letter lists twenty-two Old Testament books and the books of the New Testament, and sets Wisdom, Sirach, Esther, Judith and Tobit among books "appointed by the Fathers to be read". David Brakke calls it "the first extant list of precisely the twenty-seven books of the current New Testament canon".636465

  7. Late antiquity
    c. 391

    Jerome's Prologus galeatus sets out the Hebrew canon and says Wisdom, Sirach, Judith, Tobias and the Shepherd "are not in the canon".66

  8. Late antiquity
    393 to 419

    The African councils of Hippo in 393 and Carthage in 397 issue a list, surviving in the code confirmed at Carthage on 25 May 419, whose Old Testament includes Tobit, Judith and two books of Maccabees and whose New Testament has 27 books.6768

  9. Medieval
    1298

    The metrical catalog of 'Abdisho bar Brika, headed "A.D. 1298" in Badger's translation, gives the Church of the East a New Testament of 22 books.45

  10. Medieval
    1442

    The Council of Florence's bull Cantate Domino, dated 4 February 1442, lists an Old Testament that includes Tobit, Judith, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch and two books of Maccabees. Reid reads it as teaching "the inspiration of all the Scriptures" without formally passing on their canonicity.6970

  11. Reformation
    1522 and 1534

    Luther's New Testament of 21 September 1522 sets Hebrews, James, Jude and Revelation apart at the end. His complete Bible of 1534 carries the Apocrypha as "books not equal to the Holy Scriptures, yet useful and good to read".7172

  12. Reformation
    1546

    The Council of Trent, on 8 April 1546, receives the books of both Testaments "with an equal affection of piety, and reverence" and pronounces anathema on anyone who does not receive "the said books entire with all their parts" as "sacred and canonical".7315

  13. Reformation
    1646 to 1648

    The Westminster Confession lists 39 Old Testament and 27 New Testament books and holds that the Apocrypha "are no part of the canon of the Scripture". It was completed in 1646, adopted by the Church of Scotland in 1647 and approved by Parliament in June 1648.874

  14. Modern
    1672

    The Synod of Jerusalem under Patriarch Dositheus counts Wisdom, Judith, Tobit, the History of the Dragon, Susanna, the Maccabees and Sirach, which an opponent had called Apocrypha, "genuine parts of Scripture".2122

  15. Modern
    1826 to 1827

    After dissension from 1825, the British and Foreign Bible Society resolves that its fundamental law forbids it to circulate the Apocrypha; the sources date the decision to 1826 and to 1827. The Scottish societies that began the agitation secede.7576

  16. Modern
    1870

    The First Vatican Council, on 24 April 1870, receives the books as listed by Trent and denies that the Church holds them sacred "because she subsequently approved them by her authority", grounding their status in inspiration.1677

How to study canon formation and canonicity

The questions it asks

  • How did the Hebrew Bible take its threefold shape, and when was it closed?
  • Why do the churches differ over the books the Greek Old Testament carries beyond the Hebrew canon?
  • When did a recognized core of the New Testament exist, what drove its shaping, and is the process best told as the slow growth of a list or as the early emergence of a collection?
  • Which criteria did the early communities use, and do criteria explain the canon at all?
  • Does the church create the canon or recognize it?
  • At what point in time precisely does a text become canonical?78

Its method

Start

  1. Distinguish the two senses of canon, a rule and a list, and state which definition of canonicity is in use797080.

  2. Gather the canon lists, each "a list of the books that an author or council considers to constitute the biblical canon", in date order, and record for each what it includes, what it omits and what it marks as doubtful81.

  3. Read each witness in its own words before the modern accounts built on it, and keep the date of a surviving copy apart from the date of the list it carries8283.

  4. Weigh the reasons ancient writers gave for accepting, doubting or refusing a book: apostolicity, the rule of faith, catholicity, liturgical use, antiquity and inspiration84855986.

  5. Keep public reading apart from canonical standing: a book could be read in church yet not placed among the acknowledged books5982.

  6. Put the same questions to each tradition: which books it holds, what document or body sets its list and when, what terms it uses for the books at the edge, and how its practice differs from its list2.

  7. Test public claims against the councils, lists and confessions they appeal to: state the claim, trace where it comes from, set out what the primary evidence shows, and record what remains open.

What to read

Its primary witnesses

  • Josephus, Against Apion, the first text to give a specific number of books5455.
  • The baraita in Bava Batra 14b to 15a, giving the order and writers of the 24 books43.
  • Mishnah Yadayim 3:5 and 4:6, on the Holy Scriptures that "defile the hands"8788.
  • The Dead Sea Scrolls, with just over 200 manuscripts of biblical books among more than 900, and "Except for Esther, every book of the Hebrew Bible is accounted for"89.
  • The great Greek codices Sinaiticus, Vaticanus and Alexandrinus, each holding books beyond the Hebrew canon, but not the same ones909192.
  • The Muratorian Fragment, a Latin list in Milan, Biblioteca Ambrosiana, I 101 sup., whose date is disputed8283.
  • Eusebius, Church History 3.25, with its classes of acknowledged, disputed and rejected books59.
  • Athanasius' Thirty-Ninth Festal Letter of 3676365.
  • The Code of Canons of the African Church, confirmed on 25 May 41967.
  • The decrees and confessions that fix the churches' lists: Florence, Trent, the Westminster and Belgic Confessions, the Thirty-nine Articles and the Confession of Dositheus69158931022.
  • The metrical catalog of 'Abdisho bar Brika for the Church of the East45.

Standard reference works

  • Edmon Gallagher and John Meade, The Biblical Canon Lists from Early Christianity, with texts, translations and analysis of Jewish, Greek, Latin and Syriac lists9481.
  • Lee Martin McDonald, The Formation of the Biblical Canon, whose second volume (2017) treats the New Testament with appendices of canon lists95.
  • Lee Martin McDonald and James A. Sanders (eds), The Canon Debate (2002)96.
  • Timothy H. Lim, The Formation of the Jewish Canon (2013)55.
  • Roger Beckwith, The Old Testament Canon of the New Testament Church (1985)97.
  • The works of Gamble (1985), McDonald (third edition, 2007) and Gallagher and Meade (2017), which Snyder's chapter in The Cambridge Companion to the New Testament recommends as starting points98.
  • The index of ancient lists at bible-researcher.com, from the Muratorian Fragment to John of Damascus58.
  • George Reid, "Canon of the Holy Scriptures", Catholic Encyclopedia (1908), and the Jewish Encyclopedia article "Bible Canon" (1906)705.

Scholarship referenced in this study

The works below shaped the field and are cited in this study, from the earliest to the most recent. Hover over a book, or select it, to see its author and the sources behind it.

  • 1972The Formation of the Christian BibleHans von CampenhausenThe Formation of the Christian Bible (1972)Hans von Campenhausen (1903 to 1989)Sources99–100
  • 1987The Canon of the New Testament: Its Origin, Development, and SignificanceBruce M. MetzgerThe Canon of the New Testament: Its Origin, Development, and Significance (1987)Bruce M. Metzger (9 February 1914 to 13 February 2007)Sources101–102
  • 1988The Canon of ScriptureF. F. BruceThe Canon of Scripture (1988)F. F. Bruce (1910 to 1990)Sources103–104
  • 1997People of the Book: Canon, Meaning, and AuthorityMoshe HalbertalPeople of the Book: Canon, Meaning, and Authority (1997)Moshe HalbertalSources105–106
  • 1998Canon and Criterion in Christian TheologyWilliam J. AbrahamCanon and Criterion in Christian Theology (1998)William J. Abraham (19 December 1947 to 7 October 2021)Sources107–108
  • 2000The First Edition of the New TestamentDavid TrobischThe First Edition of the New Testament (2000)David TrobischSources109
  • 2002The Canon DebateLee Martin McDonaldThe Canon Debate (2002)Lee Martin McDonald, with James A. SandersSources96110
  • 2010Who Chose the Gospels?Charles E. HillWho Chose the Gospels? (2010)Charles E. HillSources111
  • 2012Canon RevisitedMichael J. KrugerCanon Revisited (2012)Michael J. KrugerSources112
  • 2014The Old Testament in Eastern Orthodox TraditionEugen J. PentiucThe Old Testament in Eastern Orthodox Tradition (2014)Eugen J. PentiucSources113
  • 20201 Enoch as Christian ScriptureBruk Ayele Asale1 Enoch as Christian Scripture (2020)Bruk Ayele AsaleSources114
  • 2022The Muratorian Fragment: Text, Translation, CommentaryClare K. RothschildThe Muratorian Fragment: Text, Translation, Commentary (2022)Clare K. RothschildSources115

Listed because this study draws on their published work; no association with or endorsement of Numa Verse is implied. Suggest a correction.

Key terms

The words that carry the most weight in this field, each defined from the sources of this study. Turn a card over to read its definition.

From the Greek kanōn, "a reed, or measuring-rod", then "a rule or standard"; from the fourth century applied to the authoritative body of Scripture702.

The quality of belonging to the canon; the Catholic Encyclopedia calls it "a correlative of inspiration", while F. F. Bruce held that "canonicity follows authority and is dependent upon it"70116.

"A list of the books that an author or council considers to constitute the biblical canon", in Gallagher and Meade's definition81.

The Jewish name for the Hebrew Bible, an acronym of its three divisions, Torah, Nevi'im and Ketuvim25.

Catholic terms for books "always received by Christendom without dispute" and for books once "contested in some quarters" that "long ago gained a secure footing"; neither was used before the sixteenth century18.

From the Greek apokryptein, "to hide away": works outside an accepted canon; Jerome applied the word to all books not found in the Jewish canon, and the Reformers followed him117118119.

The Eastern Orthodox name, meaning "Readable", for the books outside the Hebrew canon, rooted in Athanasius' books "appointed by the Fathers to be read"1964.

Greek names often given to Eusebius' classes of acknowledged and disputed books, and used by Lutheran theologians for undisputed and disputed books5972.

A Protestant and academic term for excluded writings beside the Apocrypha; some books so classed, among them Enoch and Jubilees, are canonical in the Ethiopian and Eritrean Tewahedo canon11842.

Where it sits

Builds on

Canon formation and canonicity

Questions people ask

No. The twenty canons of the First Council of Nicaea in 325 contain no list of books, and the story of the books sorted at the altar first appears in the ninth-century Synodicon Vetus61120. Scholars of quite different positions answer the claim in similar terms: Bart Ehrman writes that "the Council of Nicaea did not debate or decide which books should belong in Scripture", and John Meade that "There is no historical basis for the idea that Nicaea established the canon and created the Bible"12162.

The theory that the canon was closed at a council at Jamnia, first formulated by Heinrich Graetz in 1871, was questioned by Jack P. Lewis in 1964 and judged no longer tenable by van der Kooij in 1995122123. Older reference works still carry the council model, while the specialist literature has set it aside, and when and how the Hebrew canon closed remains disputed1243.

No record shows a church removing Enoch from a canon it had previously defined: most churches never received it, and the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church holds it canonical1251264341. Tertullian defended the book but reported that it "is not received by some, because it is not admitted into the Jewish canon either"125.

Trent's decree of 8 April 1546 followed lists already given by Florence in 1442 and by the African councils, while Athanasius and Jerome had placed several of the same books outside the canon1569127128129. Neither "added" nor "removed" describes the history neutrally, since each word assumes the answer one tradition gives to whether those councils bound the whole church121127.

Some sources the Bible itself cites, such as the Book of Jashar, are lost130131. The 1926 compilation The Lost Books of the Bible gathers apocrypha and Apostolic Fathers rather than books removed by a named council132133134.

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  1. 1"Tanakh", Britannicahttps://www.britannica.com/topic/Tanakh (opens in a new tab)
  2. 2"Old Testament canon, texts, and versions", J. C. Rylaarsdam, Britannicahttps://www.britannica.com/topic/biblical-literature/Old-Testament-canon-texts-and-versions (opens in a new tab)
  3. 3T. H. Lim, "How was the Canon formed?" (full text PDF), University of Edinburghhttps://www.pure.ed.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/266746153/LIimET2022HowWasTheCanonFormed.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  4. 4Bava Batra 14b (William Davidson Edition), Sefaria APIhttps://www.sefaria.org/api/texts/Bava_Batra.14b (opens in a new tab)
  5. 5"Bible Canon", Jewish Encyclopedia (1906), Hirsch, Blau, Kohler, Schmidt, jewishencyclopedia.comhttps://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/3259-bible-canon (opens in a new tab)
  6. 6Kohelet Rabbah 12:12, Sefaria APIhttps://www.sefaria.org/api/texts/Kohelet_Rabbah.12.12 (opens in a new tab)
  7. 7T. H. Lim, "How was the Canon formed?", Expository Times 133.9 (2022), record, University of Edinburghhttps://www.research.ed.ac.uk/en/publications/how-was-the-canon-formed/ (opens in a new tab)
  8. 8Westminster Confession of Faith, Orthodox Presbyterian Churchhttps://www.opc.org/wcf.html (opens in a new tab)
  9. 9Belgic Confession, Christian Reformed Church in North Americahttps://www.crcna.org/welcome/beliefs/confessions/belgic-confession (opens in a new tab)
  10. 10Thirty-nine Articles, Anglicans Onlinehttps://anglicansonline.org/basics/thirty-nine_articles.html (opens in a new tab)
  11. 11Jorg Christian Salzmann, "Die Apokryphen: ein vergessenes Erbe der Lutherischen Kirche" (LTH Oberursel, 1998), SELK PDFhttps://www.SELK.de/download/Nr22-Salzmann-Apokryphen.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  12. 12The Formula of Concord, Schaff, CCELhttps://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds3/creeds3.iii.iv.html (opens in a new tab)
  13. 13Catechism of the Catholic Church, paras 120-130 pagehttps://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__PR.HTM (opens in a new tab)
  14. 14Eugene IV, Bulla Cantate Domino (Latin), vatican.vahttps://www.vatican.va/content/eugenius-iv/la/documents/bulla-cantate-domino-4-febr-1442.html (opens in a new tab)
  15. 15Council of Trent, Fourth Session (8 April 1546), Waterworth translationhttps://www.papalencyclicals.net/councils/trent/fourth-session.htm (opens in a new tab)
  16. 16First Vatican Council, Session 3, Dei Filius (24 April 1870)https://www.papalencyclicals.net/councils/ecum20.htm (opens in a new tab)
  17. 17"Apocrypha," Catholic Encyclopediahttps://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01601a.htm (opens in a new tab)
  18. 18George Reid, "Canon of the Old Testament," Catholic Encyclopedia (1908), New Adventhttps://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03267a.htm (opens in a new tab)
  19. 19"Inspiration, Canon and Authority of Scripture: An Orthodox Hermeneutical Perspective" (author not named on page), users.auth.grhttps://users.auth.gr/~pv/inspiration.htm (opens in a new tab)
  20. 20"The Old Testament Books Listed and Compared", The Orthodox Study Bible, hosted on azbyka.ruhttps://azbyka.ru/otechnik/world/the-orthodox-study-bible/4 (opens in a new tab)
  21. 21Schaff, Creeds vol. I, §17 Synod of Jerusalem and Confession of Dositheushttps://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds1.v.vii.html (opens in a new tab)
  22. 22Confession of Dositheus (Synod of Jerusalem 1672), trans. J. Robertson 1899, adapted by D. Bratcher, CRI/Voicehttp://www.crivoice.org/creeddositheus.html (opens in a new tab)
  23. 23Ştefan Munteanu, "Canoniques, non-canoniques ou bons à lire ? La réception des livres « deutérocanoniques » de la Septante dans l'Église orthodoxe" (2013), Diacroniahttps://www.diacronia.ro/indexing/details/A25808/pdf (opens in a new tab)
  24. 24Metropolitan Nektarios of Hong Kong, "The Holy Bible: The Canon of the Orthodox Church" (2016)https://new.express.adobe.com/page/ULjUlpUv0jjt6 (opens in a new tab)
  25. 25"The Old Testament Apocrypha", St. Herman of Alaska Orthodox Church (OCA), Glen Mills PAhttps://www.sthermansoca.org/?p=453 (opens in a new tab)
  26. 26Longer Catechism of the Orthodox, Catholic, Eastern Church (Philaret), trans. R. W. Blackmorehttp://www.pravoslavieto.com/docs/eng/Orthodox_Catechism_of_Philaret.htm (opens in a new tab)
  27. 27Bible index, Azbuka Very (azbyka.ru)https://azbyka.ru/biblia/ (opens in a new tab)
  28. 28"Канон библейский", Azbuka Very encyclopedia (updated 20 March 2026)https://azbyka.ru/kanon-biblejskij (opens in a new tab)
  29. 29Fr. Moses Samaan, "The Deuterocanonical Books", Coptic Orthodox Diocese of Los Angeles, 19 July 2012https://www.lacopts.org/orthodoxy/our-faith/the-holy-bible/the-deuterocanonical-books/ (opens in a new tab)
  30. 30"Know your Bible" (headed Dr. Murad Kamel), same diocesehttps://www.suscopts.org/evangelism/frames/know_your_bible.html (opens in a new tab)
  31. 31Q&A on the Septuagint books, Coptic Orthodox Diocese of the Southern United Stateshttps://qa.suscopts.org/index.php?qid=557&catid=340 (opens in a new tab)
  32. 32H.G. Bishop Youssef, "Night of Apocalypse", Coptic Orthodox Diocese of the Southern United States, hosted by St John Miamihttps://stjohnmiami.org/sites/default/files/book/555/night-apocalypse-hg-bishop-youssef.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  33. 33George Kiraz, "The Peshitto", Syriac Orthodox Resources (updated 25 Feb 2001)https://syriacorthodoxresources.org/Bible/Peshitto.html (opens in a new tab)
  34. 34Burkard M. Zapff, "Peschitta", WiBiLex, Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft (2021)https://www.die-bibel.de/stichwort/30808 (opens in a new tab)
  35. 35Bas ter Haar Romeny, "Bible (General)", GEDSH electronic editionhttps://gedsh.bethmardutho.org/Bible-General (opens in a new tab)
  36. 36Bas ter Haar Romeny and Craig E. Morrison, "Peshitta", GEDSH electronic editionhttps://gedsh.bethmardutho.org/Peshitta (opens in a new tab)
  37. 37"Lectionary", Syriac Orthodox Resourceshttps://syriacorthodoxresources.org/Lectionary (opens in a new tab)
  38. 38"The Bible in Armenian" (BIB.005023), Museum of the Biblehttps://collections.museumofthebible.org/artifacts/33039-the-bible-in-armenian (opens in a new tab)
  39. 39V. Rev. Fr Vahan Hovhanessian, "The Bible" (from Welcome to the Armenian Church), arak29.org PDFhttps://arak29.org/gotoroot/wp-content/uploads/sites/9/2020/04/005Bible.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  40. 40Gregory Peter Fewster, "3 Corinthians", e-Clavis: Christian Apocrypha, NASSCALhttps://www.nasscal.com/e-clavis-christian-apocrypha/3-corinthians/ (opens in a new tab)
  41. 41R. W. Cowley, "The Biblical Canon of the Ethiopian Orthodox Church Today", Ostkirchliche Studien 23 (1974), 318-323, reproduced by Islamic Awarenesshttps://www.islamic-awareness.org/bible/text/canon/ethiopican (opens in a new tab)
  42. 42"Old Testament books in TIPs", Translation Insights and Perspectives, United Bible Societieshttps://tips.translation.bible/old-testament-books-in-tips/ (opens in a new tab)
  43. 43"Canonical Books" (EOTC canon list), Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church websitehttp://www.ethiopianorthodox.org/english/canonical/books.html (opens in a new tab)
  44. 44Bruk A. Asale, "A millennium translation based on the Geʿez and LXX", The Bible Translator 65(1) (2014), 49-73, PDF hosted by translation.biblehttps://translation.bible/wp-content/uploads/2024/07/asale-2014-a-millennium-translation-based-on-the-ge-ez-and-lxx-a-new-bible-translation-in-the-ethiopian-church-and-its.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  45. 45'Abdisho bar Brika, Metrical Catalogue of Syriac Writers, tr. G. P. Badger (1852), transcribed by Roger Pearse (2005)https://tertullian.org/fathers/abdisho_bar_brika_syriac_writers_01_text.htm (opens in a new tab)
  46. 46"The New Testament in Assyrian according to the Peshitta text", Mar Yosip Parish (Assyrian Church of the East)https://maryosipparish.org/documents/assyrian/peshitta/about.html (opens in a new tab)
  47. 47Articles of Faith. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saintshttps://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/pgp/a-of-f/1?lang=eng (opens in a new tab)
  48. 48Gospel Topics, "Scriptures". The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saintshttps://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/gospel-topics/scriptures?lang=eng (opens in a new tab)
  49. 49"The Apocrypha: Of God or of Men?", The Watchtower, 1 February 1960, Watchtower Online Libraryhttps://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1960083 (opens in a new tab)
  50. 50Insight on the Scriptures, "Canon", Watch Tower, jw.orghttps://www.jw.org/en/library/books/Insight-on-the-Scriptures/Canon/ (opens in a new tab)
  51. 51Insight on the Scriptures vol. 1, "Canon", Watchtower Online Libraryhttps://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1200000880 (opens in a new tab)
  52. 52Sirach, with Prologue (World English Bible), ebible.orghttps://ebible.org/eng-web/SIR01.htm (opens in a new tab)
  53. 53NABRE introduction to Sirach, USCCBhttps://bible.usccb.org/bible/sirach/0 (opens in a new tab)
  54. 54Josephus, Against Apion (Whiston), Project Gutenberghttps://www.gutenberg.org/files/2849/2849-h/2849-h.htm (opens in a new tab)
  55. 55J. C. VanderKam, review of Lim (3 Oct 2014), Biblical Archaeology Societyhttps://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/reviews/the-formation-of-the-jewish-canon/ (opens in a new tab)
  56. 56Against Heresies 3.11, Irenaeus; tr. Roberts and Rambaut, ANF 1; New Adventhttps://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103311.htm (opens in a new tab)
  57. 57The Debate Over the Muratorian Fragment, C. E. Hill; WTJ 57 (1995)https://gospelstudies.org.uk/earlychurch/pdf/fragment_hill.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  58. 58Ancient Canon Lists (index), bible-researcher.com (M. Marlowe)https://bible-researcher.com/canon8.html (opens in a new tab)
  59. 59Church History, Book III, Eusebius; New Adventhttps://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250103.htm (opens in a new tab)
  60. 60Eusebius, Church History, Book III, New Advent (NPNF)https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250103.htm (opens in a new tab)
  61. 61First Council of Nicaea (A.D. 325), canons, tr. Henry Percival, NPNF2 vol. 14; New Adventhttps://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3801.htm (opens in a new tab)
  62. 62John D. Meade, "Did Nicaea Really Create the Bible?", Text and Canon Institute, 11 November 2021https://textandcanon.org/?p=34 (opens in a new tab)
  63. 63Festal Letter 39, Athanasius; tr. R. Payne-Smith, NPNF2 4; New Adventhttps://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2806039.htm (opens in a new tab)
  64. 64Athanasius, Letter 39 (NPNF2 4), New Adventhttps://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2806039.htm (opens in a new tab)
  65. 65A New Fragment of Athanasius's Thirty-Ninth Festal Letter, D. Brakke; HTR; Cambridge Corehttps://core-cms.cambridgecore.org/core/journals/harvard-theological-review/article/new-fragment-of-athanasiuss-thirtyninth-festal-letter-heresy-apocrypha-and-the-canon/A089F889895A8B49B6848A177978D7D4 (opens in a new tab)
  66. 66Jerome, Preface to Samuel and Kings (NPNF2-06), CCELhttps://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf206.vii.iii.iv.html (opens in a new tab)
  67. 67Code of Canons of the African Church (419), NPNF2 14; New Adventhttps://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3816.htm (opens in a new tab)
  68. 68Code of Canons of the African Church (419), New Adventhttps://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3816.htm (opens in a new tab)
  69. 69Eugenius IV, Bolla Cantate Domino (4 febbraio 1442), vatican.vahttps://www.vatican.va/content/eugenius-iv/it/documents/bulla-cantate-domino-4-febr-1442.html (opens in a new tab)
  70. 70George Reid, "Canon of the Holy Scriptures", Catholic Encyclopedia (1908). New Adventhttps://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03267a.htm (opens in a new tab)
  71. 71Philip Schaff, History of the Christian Church (1910), "Luther's Translation of the Bible," on Bible Researchhttps://www.bible-researcher.com/luther02.html (opens in a new tab)
  72. 72"Luther's Treatment of the 'Disputed Books'," Bible Research (author not named; uses LW 35)https://bible-researcher.com/antilegomena.html (opens in a new tab)
  73. 73Council of Trent, Session IV, Decree concerning the Canonical Scriptures. papalencyclicals.nethttps://www.papalencyclicals.net/councils/trent/fourth-session.htm (opens in a new tab)
  74. 74"Westminster Confession", Encyclopaedia Britannicahttps://www.britannica.com/topic/Westminster-Confession (opens in a new tab)
  75. 75"Bible Societies", New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, vol. II; CCELhttps://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/encyc02/encyc02.html?term=Bible%20Societies (opens in a new tab)
  76. 76"Canon of the Old Testament," Catholic Encyclopedia vol. 3 (1908), George Reidhttps://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03267a.htm (opens in a new tab)
  77. 77First Vatican Council, Session 3, Dogmatic constitution on the catholic faith. papalencyclicals.nethttps://www.papalencyclicals.net/councils/ecum20.htm (opens in a new tab)
  78. 78Pontifical Biblical Commission, The Interpretation of the Bible in the Church (1993). catholic-resources.orghttps://1981.catholic-resources.org/ChurchDocs/PBC_Interp-FullText.htm (opens in a new tab)
  79. 79Martin Chemnitz, Examination of the Council of Trent, Part IV, tr. Fred Kramer (CPH sample PDF)https://s3.amazonaws.com/cph-org-assets/media/pdf/155125.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  80. 80Alex Jassen, review of L. M. McDonald, The Biblical Canon (2007), Journal of Hebrew Scriptures 8 (2008)https://jhsonline.org/index.php/jhs/article/download/7283/5989?inline=1 (opens in a new tab)
  81. 81Review of Gallagher and Meade, J. E. Walters; Reading Religion, 6 Sept 2018https://readingreligion.org/9780198792499/ (opens in a new tab)
  82. 82Muratorian Fragment (Metzger translation), Early Christian Writingshttps://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/muratorian-metzger.html (opens in a new tab)
  83. 83Canon Muratori (e-Clavis), B. W. Hawk; NASSCALhttps://www.nasscal.com/?p=25645 (opens in a new tab)
  84. 84Against Marcion, Book IV, Tertullian; New Adventhttps://www.newadvent.org/fathers/03124.htm (opens in a new tab)
  85. 85Church History, Book VI, Eusebius; New Adventhttps://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250106.htm (opens in a new tab)
  86. 86First Apology 67, Justin Martyr; ANF 1; CCELhttps://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.viii.ii.lxvii.html (opens in a new tab)
  87. 87Mishnah Yadayim 3:5 (Mishnah Yomit, J. Kulp), Sefaria APIhttps://www.sefaria.org/api/texts/Mishnah_Yadayim.3.5 (opens in a new tab)
  88. 88Mishnah Yadayim 4:6, English (Kulp, Mishnah Yomit), Sefaria v3 APIhttps://www.sefaria.org/api/v3/texts/Mishnah_Yadayim.4.6?version=english (opens in a new tab)
  89. 89R. Kashow, review of VanderKam, JHS 12 (2012), Journal of Hebrew Scriptureshttps://jhsonline.org/index.php/jhs/article/download/18419/14403?inline=1 (opens in a new tab)
  90. 90Codex Sinaiticus, Contenthttps://codexsinaiticus.org/en/codex/content.aspx (opens in a new tab)
  91. 91"Codex Vaticanus," Catholic Encyclopedia, New Adventhttps://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04086a.htm (opens in a new tab)
  92. 92British Library, Royal MS 1 D VIII (Codex Alexandrinus)https://searcharchives.bl.uk/catalog/040-002353500 (opens in a new tab)
  93. 93Belgic Confession. Christian Reformed Church in North Americahttps://www.crcna.org/welcome/beliefs/confessions/belgic-confession (opens in a new tab)
  94. 94OUP, Gallagher and Meadehttps://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-biblical-canon-lists-from-early-christianity-9780198792499 (opens in a new tab)
  95. 95The Formation of the Biblical Canon vol. 2, L. M. McDonald; T&T Clark; Torrossahttps://www.torrossa.com/en/resources/an/5214354 (opens in a new tab)
  96. 96P. J. W. Schutte, "The ongoing Canon debate", HTS 60.3 (2004)https://repository.up.ac.za/handle/2263/12981 (opens in a new tab)
  97. 97David Gooding, review of Beckwith, Irish Biblical Studies 8.4 (1986)https://www.myrtlefieldhouse.com/myrtlefield-articles/review-beckwith-canon (opens in a new tab)
  98. 98The Canon of the NT (chapter), J. Snyder; Cambridge Companion to the NThttps://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-companion-to-the-new-testament/canon-of-the-new-testament/BFCDF0D33DFE95908E9A29A6CE78E215 (opens in a new tab)
  99. 99Books related to the Canon of the NT, earlychurchtexts.comhttps://earlychurchtexts.com/public/bibliographies/new_testament_canon_bibliography.htm (opens in a new tab)
  100. 100Deutsche Nationalbibliothek, GND authority records: Hengel; Campenhausen; Harnackhttps://services.dnb.de/sru/authorities?version=1.1&operation=searchRetrieve&recordSchema=MARC21-xml&query=per%3DHengel%20or%20per%3DCampenhausen%20or%20per%3DHarnack (opens in a new tab)
  101. 101Review of Metzger, Canon of the NT, dburnett.com (unsigned blog)https://www.dburnett.com/?p=1815 (opens in a new tab)
  102. 102Deutsche Nationalbibliothek, GND authority records: Zahn; Metzger; Westcotthttps://services.dnb.de/sru/authorities?version=1.1&operation=searchRetrieve&recordSchema=MARC21-xml&query=per%3DZahn%20or%20per%3DMetzger%20or%20per%3DWestcott (opens in a new tab)
  103. 103Epiphanius on the Canon, bible-researcher.comhttps://bible-researcher.com/epiphanius.html (opens in a new tab)
  104. 104Deutsche Nationalbibliothek, GND authority records: Souter; Bruce; Gamblehttps://services.dnb.de/sru/authorities?version=1.1&operation=searchRetrieve&recordSchema=MARC21-xml&query=per%3DSouter%20or%20per%3DBruce%20or%20per%3DGamble (opens in a new tab)
  105. 105Halbertal, People of the Book, Hebrew University CRIShttps://cris.huji.ac.il/en/publications/people-of-the-book-canon-meaning-and-authority/ (opens in a new tab)
  106. 106Hebrew University CRIS, Halbertal, People of the Bookhttps://cris.huji.ac.il/en/publications/people-of-the-book-canon-meaning-and-authority/ (opens in a new tab)
  107. 107Finding Augustine record, Abraham, Canon and Criterion in Christian Theologyhttps://findingaugustine.org/Record/245 (opens in a new tab)
  108. 108"Perkins Mourns the Death of Dr. William J. 'Billy' Abraham", SMUhttps://www.smu.edu/perkins/news/news_archives/archives_2021/2021-billy-abraham (opens in a new tab)
  109. 109The First Edition of the NT (chapter page), D. Trobisch; Oxford Academichttps://academic.oup.com/book/27359/chapter/197111386 (opens in a new tab)
  110. 110W. Larry Richards, review of The Canon Debate. Andrews University Seminary Studieshttps://www.andrews.edu/library/car/cardigital/Periodicals/AUSS/2003-1/2003-1-11.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  111. 111Review of Hill, Who Chose the Gospels?, C. Blomberg; Denver Journalhttps://denverjournal.denverseminary.edu/?p=10604 (opens in a new tab)
  112. 112Canon Revisited, Crosswayhttps://crossway.org/books/canon-revisited-case (opens in a new tab)
  113. 113Eugen J. Pentiuc, "Canon", in The Old Testament in Eastern Orthodox Tradition, OUP, 2014https://academic.oup.com/book/27253/chapter/196867783 (opens in a new tab)
  114. 114Harvard Book Store, Asale, 1 Enoch as Christian Scripturehttps://www.harvard.com/book/9781532691164 (opens in a new tab)
  115. 115The Muratorian Fragment (STAC 132), C. K. Rothschild; Mohr Siebeckhttps://www.mohrsiebeck.com/en/book/the-muratorian-fragment-9783161611742 (opens in a new tab)
  116. 116F. F. Bruce, "The Canon of Scripture", Inter-Varsity (Autumn 1954)https://gospelstudies.org.uk/biblicalstudies/pdf/ivp/canon_bruce.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  117. 117"Apocrypha," Britannicahttps://www.britannica.com/topic/Apocrypha (opens in a new tab)
  118. 118C. H. Toy and G. F. Moore, "Apocrypha," Jewish Encyclopedia (1906)https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/1644-apocrypha (opens in a new tab)
  119. 119"Apocrypha," Catholic Encyclopedia, New Adventhttps://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01601a.htm (opens in a new tab)
  120. 120Dumbarton Oaks, The Synodicon Vetus, ed. John M. Duffy and John Parkerhttps://www.doaks.org/resources/publications/books/the-synodicon-vetus (opens in a new tab)
  121. 121Bart D. Ehrman, "Did the Council of Nicaea Take Away Reincarnation and Give us the Bible?", Ehrman Blog, 8 January 2017https://ehrmanblog.org/did-the-council-of-nicaea-take-away-reincarnation-and-give-us-the-bible/ (opens in a new tab)
  122. 122A. van der Kooij, "De canonvorming van de Hebreeuwse bijbel", NTT 49 (1995) 42-65, Leiden repositoryhttps://scholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl/access/item%3A2721418/download (opens in a new tab)
  123. 123Bibliography page (Aune 1991; Lewis 1964 citations), ojs.chat.edu.plhttps://ojs.chat.edu.pl/index.php/rt/article/view/634 (opens in a new tab)
  124. 124"The divisions of the TaNaKh" (Rylaarsdam), Britannicahttps://www.britannica.com/topic/biblical-literature/The-divisions-of-the-TaNaKh (opens in a new tab)
  125. 125Tertullian, On the Apparel of Women; New Adventhttps://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0402.htm (opens in a new tab)
  126. 126Origen, Against Celsus 5.54, ANF vol. 4; CCELhttps://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf04.vi.ix.v.liv.html (opens in a new tab)
  127. 127G. Reid, "Canon of the Old Testament", Catholic Encyclopedia (1908); New Adventhttps://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03267a.htm (opens in a new tab)
  128. 128Athanasius, Festal Letter 39 (367); New Adventhttps://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2806039.htm (opens in a new tab)
  129. 129Jerome, Preface to Judith, tr. Andrew S. Jacobs (2004); tertullian.orghttps://www.tertullian.org/fathers/jerome_preface_judith.htm (opens in a new tab)
  130. 130Emil G. Hirsch and M. Seligsohn, "Jasher, Book of", Jewish Encyclopedia (1906)https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/8526-jasher-book-of (opens in a new tab)
  131. 131Bible Gateway, NRSVUE: Joshua 10:13, 2 Samuel 1:18, Jude 14-15, 2 Peter 2:4https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Jude+1:14-15&version=NRSVUE (opens in a new tab)
  132. 132Frank Crane, Introduction, The Lost Books of the Bible; sacred-textshttps://sacred-texts.com/bib/lbob/lbob02.htm (opens in a new tab)
  133. 133The Lost Books of the Bible, "The Order of All the Books"; sacred-textshttps://sacred-texts.com/bib/lbob/lbob03.htm (opens in a new tab)
  134. 134The Forbidden Gospels and Epistles (Hone edition revised by Edward Hancock), Project Gutenberg 6516https://gutenberg.org/files/6516/6516-h/6516-h.htm (opens in a new tab)

Page record

Reviewed and approved by Duane Herholdt, BA (Theology), Chief Executive Officer, Numa Verse

Study version: v1.1, 23 October 2026 (theology map v1.27)

Last reviewed: 7 November 2026

How these pages are made

  • 7 November 2026: First draft from the approved assessment v1.1.