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Systematic theologyWhat does it teach as a whole?

Hamartiology

What is hamartiology?

Hamartiology is the part of Christian theology that studies sin: what it is, where it came from, how it reaches every human being, what it does to people and to the world, and how it is overcome. It sits between the doctrines of humanity and salvation, and in Catholic teaching it is shared between dogmatic and moral theology.

  • 160Sources
  • 17Traditions
  • 16Dated entries
  • 15Minutes

Study v1.1, 14 October 2026

Hamartiology

At a glance

Why it matters for reading Scripture

The doctrine of sin, studied as part of humanity. The reading of Genesis 3 depends on it.

What the study found

Inherited guilt resolves into four questions; the first two, a damaged human condition and mortality, are affirmed almost universally.

Where traditions divide

Traditions divide on whether Adam's act is counted to his descendants: Reformed and 1689 Baptist confessions affirm it; Orthodox, Church of the East and Adventist sources deny it.

How the traditions compare

  • Eastern Orthodox

    Holds that the ancestral sin was personal to Adam and Eve and that their descendants inherit its consequences, foremost death, rather than its guilt.

    Orthodox writers describe the Greek patristic view as an inheritance of mortality rather than sinfulness, with sinfulness following from mortality; unbaptized infants are not held guilty, and there is no limbo. The tradition is not uniform: the Confession of Dositheus of 1672 speaks of hereditary sin flowing to Adam's posterity and of infants needing baptism for its remission, while still distinguishing that inheritance from the sins of personal choice. The Immaculate Conception is not accepted.

    Sources1–5

  • Oriental Orthodox

    A family of communions whose sources differ.

    The Coptic Orthodox teaching of Pope Shenouda III holds that the sentence of death came to every person from Adam because all were in Adam's loins, while Ethiopian Orthodox scholarship reads the church's classic texts as rejecting guilt inherited from Adam. The Armenian Church rejects the Immaculate Conception yet teaches that Mary was cleansed of original sin when the Holy Spirit came upon her, and a Syriac Orthodox source says the same.

    Sources6–9

  • Church of the East

    Follows Theodore of Mopsuestia: through Adam humanity inherits mortality and a tendency to sin, not guilt, and children are baptized for adoption rather than remission.

    It venerates Mary as "Mother of Christ our God and Saviour", a title the Catholic Church recognized as legitimate in 1994; what it does not teach is the Immaculate Conception.

    Sources10–12

  • Roman Catholic

    Holds that all are implicated in Adam's sin, which is transmitted by propagation and is contracted, not committed: a deprivation of original holiness and justice that does not have the character of a personal fault in his descendants.

    Human nature is wounded, not totally corrupted. Sins are graded as mortal and venial; for infants who die unbaptized there are grounds for hope, not certainty; and the Immaculate Conception was defined in 1854.

    Sources13–16

  • Lutheran

    The Lutheran confessions teach that original sin is truly sin and condemns those not born again through baptism and the Spirit, while holding that it is an accident and not the substance of human nature.

    The Augsburg Confession of 1530 teaches that all born naturally after Adam are born without fear of God and trust in him and with concupiscence, and Melanchthon's Apology endorses the ancient definition of original sin as the absence of original righteousness.

    Sources17–20

  • Reformed

    The Reformed confessions teach that the guilt of Adam's sin is imputed and his corrupted nature conveyed, so that fallen humanity has wholly lost all ability of will to any spiritual good accompanying salvation.

    Federal theology treats Adam as the covenant head of humanity, grounding the immediate imputation of his guilt. Some sins are held more heinous than others, and the Canons of Dort address the salvation of believers' children who die in infancy; elect infants are held to be saved.

    Sources21–24

  • Anglican

    Article IX of the Thirty-nine Articles calls original sin the fault and corruption of the nature of every person, which deserves God's wrath.

    Infant baptism is kept.

    Sources25

  • Mennonite

    Speaks of a sinful nature but does not teach that Adam's act is imputed to infants, who are held safe until they are accountable; no list of grades of sin is given.

    Earlier, the Anabaptists denied the validity of infant baptism.

    Sources26–28

  • Baptist

    Baptists are divided: the Second London Confession of 1689 affirms imputed guilt and speaks of elect infants dying in infancy, while the Traditional Statement of 2012 denies that any person is guilty before personal sin, and the Baptist Faith and Message of 2000 is written to allow both.

    Many hold that all infants who die are saved.

    Sources29–33

  • Methodist and Holiness

    The Wesleyan tradition distinguishes sin properly so called, a voluntary transgression of a known law, from involuntary transgressions that still need Christ's atoning blood.

    The Church of the Nazarene calls original sin an inherited propensity to actual sin for which no one is accountable until its divinely provided remedy is neglected or rejected, and teaches entire sanctification as a work of God after regeneration, distinguishing a pure heart from a mature character. Wesley himself said that sinless perfection was a phrase he never used.

    Sources34–36

  • Assemblies of God

    Teaches that humanity fell by voluntary transgression and so incurred physical and spiritual death; its statement does not define inherited guilt.

    It teaches progressive sanctification.

    Sources37–38

  • Seventh-day Adventist

    Its statement says that Adam's descendants share his fallen nature and are born with weaknesses and tendencies to evil, without the language of inherited guilt, and it states no condemnation of infants who die.

    Sources39

  • Churches of Christ

    Hold that people are born sinless and do not inherit Adam's sin, and that infants are innocent and safe.

    Sources40–41

  • Jehovah's Witnesses

    Teach that sin and imperfection are inherited from Adam, with mortality, and that inherited sin is answered by the ransom.

    Blasphemy against the spirit is held unforgivable; there is no infant baptism, and perfection lies in the future.

    Sources42–46

  • Latter-day Saints

    The Second Article of Faith holds that people will be punished for their own sins and not for Adam's transgression, while the tradition affirms that the Fall brought physical and spiritual death.

    Children are alive in Christ until the age of eight.

    Sources47–49

  • Judaism (for comparison)

    Reuven Hammer describes human beings as born neither carrying nor tainted by the sins of their ancestors, and sin as chet, a going astray.

    Rabbinic Judaism developed the doctrine of the two inclinations, the good and the evil yetzer, and the Jewish Encyclopedia reports that the majority of the rabbis did not hold Adam responsible for the sins of humankind and that Jewish theology admits no unpardonable sin. The Day of Atonement atones for sins against God, but wrongs against a neighbor must first be put right.

    Sources50–53

  • Islam (for comparison)

    The Qur'an teaches that God accepted Adam's repentance and that no soul bears the burden of another, and children are born in fitrah.

    Hammudah Abdulati describes sin as deliberate defiance of God's law, acquired, not inborn, and graded as major and minor; shirk is unforgiven if unrepented. The remedy is repentance, tawbah, and wrongs to people need their pardon.

    Sources54–59

How the field developed

  1. Second Temple
    3rd century BCE or earlier

    The Book of the Watchers, 1 Enoch 6 to 16, expands Genesis 6:1 to 4: two hundred Watchers led by Shemihazah take human wives and father giants, and Asael teaches forbidden arts. It places the origin of evil in a superhuman rebellion beside the Adamic account of Genesis 3, and is usually dated to the third century before Christ or earlier.60616263

  2. Early church
    After 70

    Two works written after the fall of the Temple answer the Adam question differently: Fourth Ezra laments that the fall was not Adam's alone but that of his descendants also, while Second Baruch replies that each of us has been the Adam of his own soul. Both are later than Paul's letters.6465

  3. Late antiquity
    1 May 418

    A council of about two hundred bishops at Carthage condemns Pelagianism in nine canons, including the baptism of infants for the remission of sins. The date is the day after the imperial rescript of 30 April; 417 confuses it with the appeals to Innocent I.666768

  4. Late antiquity
    3 July 529

    The Second Council of Orange holds that the whole man, body and soul, was changed for the worse through Adam's sin and that sin, the death of the soul, passed through one man to the whole race, and it rejects predestination to evil. Boniface II ratifies its canons on 25 January 531.697071

  5. Late antiquity
    c. 543 and 553

    The Origenist teaching of a fall of minds before the world is condemned under Justinian around 543, and the Second Council of Constantinople in 553 names Origen among the heretics in its eleventh anathema. Whether the fifteen anathemas against Origen printed with its acts were the council's own work remains disputed.7273

  6. Medieval
    1215

    The Fourth Lateran Council requires all the faithful who have reached the age of discretion to confess all their sins at least once a year to their own priest.74

  7. Reformation
    1525

    Luther's The Bondage of the Will answers Erasmus's On Free Will of 1524 with the thesis that fallen humans are free only to sin without God's grace.7576

  8. Reformation
    17 June 1546

    The Council of Trent's Decree on Original Sin holds that Adam's sin passes by propagation, not imitation, and is removed by Christ's merit in baptism, and that concupiscence remains in the baptized but is not truly and properly sin. The decree states that it does not mean to include the Virgin Mary.77

  9. Reformation
    1618 to 1619

    The Synod of Dort meets from 13 November 1618 to 9 May 1619 and teaches that all are conceived in sin, by propagation of a corrupted nature. The acronym TULIP, often used for its canons, is a later popular summary and is not part of the Synod's text.787980

  10. Reformation
    1646 to 1647

    The Westminster Confession, completed in 1646 and published with proofs in 1647, teaches in chapter VI that Adam's guilt is imputed and his corruption conveyed.8182

  11. Modern
    1740 to 1758

    John Taylor of Norwich denies inherited guilt in The Scripture Doctrine of Original Sin (1740). John Wesley answers him in The Doctrine of Original Sin (1757), and Jonathan Edwards in Original Sin (1758), arguing that the universal fact of sinful acts points to a sinful predisposition and that God constitutes humanity one with Adam.838485

  12. Modern
    1793

    Immanuel Kant's Religion within the Boundaries of Mere Reason speaks of a radical evil in human nature, a propensity to subordinate the moral law to self-love, in three grades of frailty, impurity and perversity.8687

  13. Modern
    1950

    Humani generis allows that the evolution of the body may be studied but holds that polygenism is not open to the faithful, because original sin proceeds from a sin committed by an individual Adam.88

  14. Modern
    1960

    Valerie Saiving's essay "The Human Situation: A Feminine View" argues that theology which makes pride the central sin reflects men's experience, and that women's typical temptations are rather the underdevelopment or negation of the self. It opens the feminist critique of the doctrine.8990

  15. Modern
    1987

    John Paul II's Sollicitudo rei socialis, referring back to his exhortation Reconciliatio et paenitentia (1984), introduces the phrase structures of sin, rooted in personal sin and driven by the desire for profit and the thirst for power.9192

  16. Modern
    2020

    Original Sin and the Fall: Five Views sets out the current systematic positions side by side: Augustinian-Reformed (Hans Madueme), moderate Reformed (Oliver Crisp), Wesleyan (Joel Green), Eastern Orthodox (Andrew Louth) and reconceived (Tatha Wiley).93

How to study hamartiology

The questions it asks

  • What is sin: a word, deed or desire against the eternal law, want of conformity to God's law, voluntary transgression of a known law, or estrangement?942234
  • Where did sin come from: a historical first disobedience, a fall of angels or Watchers, a fall of minds before the world, an immature humanity that went astray in growing, or a symbol of the universal human condition?9596729798
  • What passes from Adam to his descendants: a damaged condition, mortality, the imputation of his act, or personal blame for it?13211
  • How is sin passed on: by natural generation, by Adam's standing as covenant head, by real participation in Adam, or by society and example?9923
  • How far does sin reach into human nature and the will, and are all sins equal?211314
  • What does sin do to the mind and to the knowledge of God?10099
  • Can sin be social, or is it always rooted in persons?9291101

Its method

Start

  1. Begin with the biblical vocabulary: the Bible has no single word for sin, and its main Hebrew and Greek terms each carry their own picture; concordances group the words differently and give different counts102103.

  2. Read the terms in their contexts rather than by etymology alone, and do not read the later rabbinic grading of chet, 'avon and pesha' back into every biblical use52.

  3. Weigh the key texts, above all Romans 5:12, where the Greek eph' hō has been read as in whom, because, and with the result that all sinned; each reading supports a different account of how Adam's sin reaches his descendants104105106.

  4. Read the Jewish writings of the Second Temple period and after as witnesses to how the question was argued, keeping apart those, such as 4 Ezra and 2 Baruch, that are later than Paul's letters6465.

  5. Trace the doctrine through the Fathers, councils and confessions, settling disputed dates against the sources6610768.

  6. Separate the four questions often joined as inherited guilt: whether a damaged condition passes, whether mortality passes, whether Adam's act is imputed, and whether his descendants are personally blameworthy for it13211.

  7. Describe each tradition from its own confessional or official documents, and where a confession does not address a question, say so rather than infer a position for the whole tradition.

  8. Compare Judaism and Islam in their own categories, which are not those of the Christian debate5055.

What to read

Its primary witnesses

  • The Hebrew Scriptures: Genesis 3 and 4, Genesis 6:5 and 8:21, Leviticus 4, 5 and 16, Psalm 51 and Ezekiel 1810851109110111112.
  • The New Testament: Romans 5:12 to 21 and Romans 7, Galatians 5:16 to 24, James 1:14 to 15, 1 John 1:8 to 10 and 3:4 to 9, and Mark 3:28 to 2995113114115116117.
  • Jewish writings of the Second Temple period and after: the Book of the Watchers, Sirach, the Wisdom of Solomon, 4 Ezra, 2 Baruch and the Treatise on the Two Spirits at Qumran601181196465120.
  • The Fathers, among them Irenaeus's Against Heresies, Tertullian's De anima, Athanasius's On the Incarnation, and Augustine's Confessions and City of God121122123124125.
  • The canons of the Council of Carthage (418) and of the Second Council of Orange (529)6770.
  • The confessions and decrees of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries: the Augsburg Confession, the Formula of Concord, Trent's Decree on Original Sin, the Canons of Dort and the Westminster Confession1918777981.
  • Modern Catholic teaching: Gaudium et spes, Reconciliatio et paenitentia, Sollicitudo rei socialis and the Catechism of the Catholic Church1269291127.
  • The statements of the churches, from the Confession of Dositheus (1672) to the Baptist Faith and Message (2000)432.

Standard reference works

  • Kevin Timpe's entry "Sin in Christian Thought" in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, first published in 2021 and revised in 202599.
  • The Catholic Encyclopedia (1912) and Jewish Encyclopedia (1906) articles on sin, and Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on sin12852129.
  • The Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament and Theological Dictionary of the New Testament articles on the Hebrew and Greek terms130.
  • Julius Müller's The Christian Doctrine of Sin (English translation, 1868)131.
  • Herman Bavinck's Reformed Dogmatics, volume 3, Sin and Salvation in Christ (2006)132.
  • Gary Anderson's Sin: A History (2009) and Joseph Lam's Patterns of Sin in the Hebrew Bible133134.
  • The T&T Clark Companion to the Doctrine of Sin (2016), edited by Keith L. Johnson and David Lauber135.
  • Original Sin and the Fall: Five Views (2020), edited by J. B. Stump and Chad Meister136.

Scholarship referenced in this study

The works below shaped the field and are cited in this study, from the earliest to the most recent. Hover over a book, or select it, to see its author and the sources behind it.

  • 1868The Christian Doctrine of SinJulius MüllerThe Christian Doctrine of Sin (1868)Julius Müller (1801 to 1878)Sources131
  • 1965Die Hauptbegriffe für Sünde im Alten TestamentRolf KnierimDie Hauptbegriffe für Sünde im Alten Testament (1965)Rolf Knierim (1928 to 29 September 2018)Sources137–138
  • 1965Man and Sin: A Theological ViewPiet SchoonenbergMan and Sin: A Theological View (1965)Piet Schoonenberg (1911 to 1999)Sources139
  • 1993The Wounded Heart of God: The Asian Concept of Han and the Christian Doctrine of SinAndrew Sung ParkThe Wounded Heart of God: The Asian Concept of Han and the Christian Doctrine of Sin (1993)Andrew Sung ParkSources140
  • 1995Not the Way It's Supposed to Be: A Breviary of SinCornelius Plantinga Jr.Not the Way It's Supposed to Be: A Breviary of Sin (1995)Cornelius Plantinga Jr.Sources141
  • 1997Original Sin: Illuminating the RiddleHenri BlocherOriginal Sin: Illuminating the Riddle (1997)Henri BlocherSources142
  • 2000Bound to SinAlistair McFadyenBound to Sin (2000)Alistair McFadyenSources143
  • 2002Original Sin: Origins, Developments, Contemporary MeaningsTatha WileyOriginal Sin: Origins, Developments, Contemporary Meanings (2002)Tatha WileySources144
  • 2010In Adam's FallIan A. McFarlandIn Adam's Fall (2010)Ian A. McFarlandSources145
  • 2013Stricken by Sin, Cured by ChristJesse CouenhovenStricken by Sin, Cured by Christ (2013)Jesse CouenhovenSources146
  • 2016T&T Clark Companion to the Doctrine of SinKeith L. JohnsonT&T Clark Companion to the Doctrine of Sin (2016)Keith L. Johnson, with David LauberSources135
  • 2019Against God and Nature: The Doctrine of SinThomas H. McCallAgainst God and Nature: The Doctrine of Sin (2019)Thomas H. McCallSources147

Listed because this study draws on their published work; no association with or endorsement of Numa Verse is implied. Suggest a correction.

Key terms

The words that carry the most weight in this field, each defined from the sources of this study. Turn a card over to read its definition.

The Greek word for sin, from the verb hamartanein, to miss the mark or to fail of one's purpose; in Paul it is both an act and a power148149150.

In Catholic teaching, the sin in which all are implicated through Adam, contracted, not committed: a deprivation of original holiness and justice that does not have the character of a personal fault13.

The Orthodox term for the sin of Adam and Eve, held to be personal to them, whose consequences, foremost death, their descendants inherit1.

Augustine held that concupiscence remains after baptism but is not imputed as sin, and is called sin because it produces sin when it conquers the will; the Augsburg Confession calls it truly sin, and Trent holds that in the baptized it is not truly and properly sin1511977.

The Catholic grading of sin into mortal and venial; Thomas Aquinas holds that mortal sin destroys the order to the last end and venial sin does not15214.

The counting of Adam's act to his descendants. Reformed federal theology grounds an immediate imputation in Adam as covenant head, while Josué de la Place at Saumur allowed only a mediate imputation that followed inherited corruption23.

The view, in the form Tertullian held it, that all souls were contained in Adam and are passed on with the taint of sin153154.

In rabbinic teaching, the inclination: the evil inclination is present from birth, the good one comes with maturity, around the age of thirteen, and the Torah is the antidote to the evil one51155.

A phrase introduced by John Paul II in 1987 for structures rooted in personal sin and driven by the desire for profit and the thirst for power91.

The effects of sin on human reason and the knowledge of God; Rik Peels argues that sin removes knowledge of God by acquaintance while leaving the faculties in place99100.

Where it sits

Builds on

Hamartiology

Questions people ask

No. The word sin does not appear in Genesis 3; its first occurrence is Genesis 4:7, where sin crouches at the door like an animal whose desire is for Cain108134. The Septuagint does not carry that picture: its Greek reads as a rebuke to Cain for an offering rightly made but not rightly divided156.

No. What is usually called inherited guilt is four separate questions: whether a damaged condition passes from Adam, whether mortality passes, whether Adam's own act is counted to his descendants, and whether they are personally blameworthy for it. Almost every Christian tradition affirms the first two. They divide on the third, which the Reformed and 1689 Baptist confessions affirm and the Orthodox, Church of the East, Adventist, Restorationist and Latter-day Saint sources deny, and almost none affirm the fourth1317211113947.

Mark 3:28 to 29 speaks of blasphemy against the Holy Spirit117. Catholic teaching describes it as the deliberate refusal of God's mercy157, Anglican and Methodist articles hold that not every deliberate sin after baptism is unpardonable158, and the Jewish Encyclopedia reports that Jewish theology admits no unpardonable sin52.

This is the liveliest current debate. Population genetics points to a population that did not fall below a few thousand rather than to a single pair: BioLogos speaks of thousands, and Dennis Venema of about 10,00098159. The positions run from a historical first pair to a purely symbolic reading9893. S. Joshua Swamidass argues that Adam and Eve could be genealogical ancestors of all people without being their only genetic ancestors160, while Humani generis (1950) held that polygenism is not open to the faithful88.

John Paul II held that sin in the proper sense is always a personal act, while allowing that sin may be called social in three analogical senses, and accepted structures of sin as always rooted in personal sin9291. Liberation theology holds that structures carry and multiply sin beyond any person's intention, and the Puebla conference of 1979 tied poverty and structural injustice to social sin101. The tension between these two positions runs through most later debate.

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  1. 1Original Sin (Orthodox Church in America)https://www.oca.org/questions/teaching/original-sin (opens in a new tab)
  2. 2Original Sin, legacy Q&A (Orthodox Church in America)https://www.oca.org/QA.asp?ID=3&SID=3 (opens in a new tab)
  3. 3Fr Vassilios Papavassiliou, "Original Sin: Orthodox Doctrine or Heresy?" (Pravmir)https://www.pravmir.com/?p=289441 (opens in a new tab)
  4. 4Confession of Dositheus, Synod of Jerusalem, 1672 (CRI/Voice)https://www.crivoice.org/creeddositheus.html (opens in a new tab)
  5. 5Paweł Stefanowski, "Grzech pierworodny według nauki Kościoła prawosławnego", Studia Paradyskie 33 (University of Szczecin)https://wnus.usz.edu.pl/sp/en/issue/1344/article/20651/ (opens in a new tab)
  6. 6Pope Shenouda III, Comparative Theology, on the baptism of children of baptized parents (St-Takla.org)https://st-takla.org/books/en/pope-shenouda-iii/comparative-theology/baptism-parents.html (opens in a new tab)
  7. 7Fikremariam Bazezew, on original sin in the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church (Russian Journal of Church History)https://churchhistory.elpub.ru/jour/article/view/189 (opens in a new tab)
  8. 8The Conception and Birth of Mary (Diocese of the Armenian Church of America, Eastern)https://armenianchurch.us/?p=2629 (opens in a new tab)
  9. 9The Teaching of the Syriac Church, a summary of Patriarch Ignatius Zakka I Iwas (Abun d'Bashmayo, Substack)https://abundbashmayo.substack.com/p/the-teaching-of-the-syriac-church (opens in a new tab)
  10. 10Élisée Marzin, "Dieu Didascale. Notes sur Théodore de Mopsueste et sa postérité", Proche-Orient Chrétien 69:2 (Université Saint-Joseph)https://e-journals.usj.edu.lb/poc/vol69/iss2/2 (opens in a new tab)
  11. 11Infant Baptism and the Adam Sin, East Syriac fathers (Malankara Library)https://malankaralibrary.com/ImageUpload/f192bb015bf6500201d37750d6121ea8.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  12. 12Common Christological Declaration between the Catholic Church and the Assyrian Church of the East, 11 November 1994 (Holy See)https://www.vatican.va/content/john-paul-ii/en/speeches/1994/november/documents/hf_jp-ii_spe_19941111_dichiarazione-cristologica.html (opens in a new tab)
  13. 13Catechism of the Catholic Church, paragraphs 403 to 406 (USCCB)https://www.usccb.org/sites/default/files/flipbooks/catechism/104/index.html (opens in a new tab)
  14. 14Catechism of the Catholic Church, paragraphs 1854 to 1856 (USCCB)https://www.usccb.org/sites/default/files/flipbooks/catechism/456/index.html (opens in a new tab)
  15. 15International Theological Commission, The Hope of Salvation for Infants Who Die Without Being Baptised, 2007 (EWTN)https://www.ewtn.com/catholicism/library/hope-of-salvation-for-infants-who-die-without-being-baptized-29553 (opens in a new tab)
  16. 16Pius IX, Ineffabilis Deus, 1854, in Schaff, Creeds of Christendom, volume 2 (Christian Classics Ethereal Library)https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds2.v.i.iii.html (opens in a new tab)
  17. 17Augsburg Confession, Article II: Original Sin (Book of Concord, Concordia Publishing House)https://bookofconcord.cph.org/en/augsburg-confession/chief_articles/article_ii (opens in a new tab)
  18. 18Formula of Concord, Solid Declaration I: Original Sin (Book of Concord, Concordia Publishing House)https://bookofconcord.cph.org/en/formula-of-concord-solid-declaration/i_original_sin (opens in a new tab)
  19. 19Augsburg Confession (1530), in Schaff, Creeds of Christendom III (Christian Classics Ethereal Library)https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds3.iii.ii.html (opens in a new tab)
  20. 20Apology of the Augsburg Confession, Article II: Original Sin (Book of Concord, Concordia Publishing House)https://bookofconcord.cph.org/en/apology-augsburg-confession/article_ii_i (opens in a new tab)
  21. 21Westminster Confession of Faith (Orthodox Presbyterian Church)https://www.opc.org/wcf.html (opens in a new tab)
  22. 22Westminster Shorter Catechism (Orthodox Presbyterian Church)https://www.opc.org/sc.html (opens in a new tab)
  23. 23Schaff, Creeds of Christendom I, The Helvetic Consensus Formula, A.D. 1675 (Christian Classics Ethereal Library)https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds1.ix.ii.xi.html (opens in a new tab)
  24. 24Kim Riddlebarger, "The Salvation of Deceased Infants of Believers: Canons of Dort I.17" (The Riddleblog)https://kimriddlebarger.com/the-riddleblog/the-salvation-of-deceased-infants-of-believers-article-seventeen-first-head-of-doctrine-canons-of-dort (opens in a new tab)
  25. 25Articles of Religion, the Thirty-nine Articles (Anglican Church of Canada)https://www.anglican.ca/resources/articles-of-religion/ (opens in a new tab)
  26. 26Original sin, glossary (Third Way, MennoMedia)https://thirdwaycafe.com/glossary/original-sin/ (opens in a new tab)
  27. 27Confession of Faith Roundtable: Sin, Article 7 (Anabaptist World)https://anabaptistworld.org/confession-faith-roundtable-sin/ (opens in a new tab)
  28. 28Anabaptists, Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01445b.htm (opens in a new tab)
  29. 29Second London Baptist Confession (1689), chapter 6 (Reformed Baptist Network)https://reformedbaptistnetwork.com/1689lbcf/lbcfch6/ (opens in a new tab)
  30. 30Second London Confession: Infant Election (Founders Ministries)https://founders.org/articles/infant-election/ (opens in a new tab)
  31. 31A Statement of the Traditional Southern Baptist Understanding of God's Plan of Salvation, 2012 (Baptist Press)https://www.baptistpress.com/?p=163418 (opens in a new tab)
  32. 32Baptist Faith and Message 2000 (Southern Baptist Convention)https://bfm.sbc.net/bfm2000/ (opens in a new tab)
  33. 33Infants-in-hell question concerns editor, 30 August 2013 (Baptist News Global)https://baptistnews.com/article/infants-in-hell-question-concerns-editor/ (opens in a new tab)
  34. 34John Wesley, A Plain Account of Christian Perfection, on involuntary transgressions (Craig L. Adams edition)https://www.craigladams.com/Books/Wesley/page38/page47/ (opens in a new tab)
  35. 35Articles of Faith, Article V: Sin, Original and Personal (Church of the Nazarene)https://nazarene.org/what-we-believe (opens in a new tab)
  36. 36Articles of Faith, Articles V, VI, X and XII (Church of the Nazarene)https://nazarene.org/sites/default/files/2024-10/ArticlesOfFaith%28English%29.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  37. 37Assemblies of God Statement of Fundamental Truths (Creeds.net)https://www.creeds.net/Misc/AOGtruths.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  38. 38Statement of Fundamental Truths (Assemblies of God USA)https://ag.org/Beliefs/Statement-of-Fundamental-Truths (opens in a new tab)
  39. 39Fundamental Belief 7: Nature of Humanity (Seventh-day Adventist Church)https://adventist.org/beliefs/official/nature-of-humanity (opens in a new tab)
  40. 40Could you clarify why you say we don't inherit Adam's sin? (La Vista Church of Christ)https://www.lavistachurchofchrist.org/cms/?p=9263 (opens in a new tab)
  41. 41Why do you teach that men are born without sin? (La Vista Church of Christ)https://www.lavistachurchofchrist.org/cms/?p=8031 (opens in a new tab)
  42. 42What Is Sin? (Jehovah's Witnesses)https://www.jw.org/en/bible-teachings/questions/what-is-sin (opens in a new tab)
  43. 43What Was the Original Sin? (Jehovah's Witnesses)https://www.jw.org/ase/bible-teachings/questions/original-sin/ (opens in a new tab)
  44. 44What Does the Bible Really Teach?, The Ransom: God's Greatest Gift (Jehovah's Witnesses)https://www.jw.org/en/library/books/bible-teach/the-ransom-jesus-sacrifice/ (opens in a new tab)
  45. 45Can Blasphemy Be Forgiven?, Awake!, 8 February 1978 (Watchtower Online Library)https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/101978090 (opens in a new tab)
  46. 46How the Ransom Saves Us, The Watchtower, 15 August 2010 (Jehovah's Witnesses)https://www.jw.org/en/library/magazines/w20100815/How-the-Ransom-Saves-Us/ (opens in a new tab)
  47. 47Articles of Faith 1 and 2 (The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints)https://churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/articles-of-faith-1-and-2?lang=eng (opens in a new tab)
  48. 48Fall of Adam and Eve, Topics and Questions (The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints)https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/gospel-topics/fall-of-adam-and-eve-study-guide?lang=eng (opens in a new tab)
  49. 49Book of Mormon Seminary Teacher Manual (2013), Lesson 157: Moroni 8 (The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints)https://churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/book-of-mormon-seminary-teacher-manual-2013/moroni/lesson-157?lang=eng (opens in a new tab)
  50. 50Reuven Hammer, "The Jewish View of Sin" (My Jewish Learning)https://www.myjewishlearning.com/article/the-jewish-view-of-sin/ (opens in a new tab)
  51. 51Yezer ha-Ra', Jewish Encyclopedia, 1906 (JewishEncyclopedia.com)https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/15083-yezer-ha-ra (opens in a new tab)
  52. 52Sin, J. Jacobs and J. D. Eisenstein, Jewish Encyclopedia, 1906 (JewishEncyclopedia.com)https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/13761-sin (opens in a new tab)
  53. 53Yom Kippur and Mishnah Yoma 8:9 (Torah.org)https://torah.org/learning/yomtov-yomkippur-vol1no45/ (opens in a new tab)
  54. 54Qur'an 2:37, translated by Mustafa Khattab (Quran.com)https://quran.com/2/37 (opens in a new tab)
  55. 55Qur'an 53:38 (Quran.com)https://quran.com/53/38 (opens in a new tab)
  56. 56Qur'an 30:30 (Quran.com)https://quran.com/30/30 (opens in a new tab)
  57. 57Sahih al-Bukhari 1385 (Sunnah.com)https://sunnah.com/bukhari:1385 (opens in a new tab)
  58. 58Hammudah Abdulati, "The Islamic Perspective of Sin" (IslamOnline)https://islamonline.net/en/the-islamic-perspective-of-sin/ (opens in a new tab)
  59. 59Qur'an 4:48 (Quran.com)https://quran.com/4/48 (opens in a new tab)
  60. 601 Enoch 6, tr. R. H. Charles (Internet Sacred Text Archive)https://sacred-texts.com/bib/boe/boe009.htm (opens in a new tab)
  61. 611 Enoch 8, tr. R. H. Charles (Internet Sacred Text Archive)https://sacred-texts.com/bib/boe/boe011.htm (opens in a new tab)
  62. 62A. T. Wright, The Origin of Evil Spirits (Fortress Press)https://fortresspress.com/store/product/9781451490329/The-Origin-of-Evil-Spirits (opens in a new tab)
  63. 63Review of Hermeneia 1 Enoch 1 to 2 (Enoch Seminar)https://enochseminar.org/1-enoch-1-2-hermeneia-series/ (opens in a new tab)
  64. 64Translation commentary on 2 Esdras 7:118 (United Bible Societies)https://tips.translation.bible/story/translation-commentary-on-2-esdras-7118/ (opens in a new tab)
  65. 65Romans 5:12 parallels, 4 Ezra and 2 Baruch (Intertextual Bible)https://intertextual.bible/p/1014 (opens in a new tab)
  66. 66B. B. Warfield, "The External History of the Pelagian Controversy", NPNF I.5 (Christian Classics Ethereal Library)https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf105.v.ii.ii.html (opens in a new tab)
  67. 67Canons of the Council of Carthage on sin and grace (Early Church Texts)https://earlychurchtexts.com/public/carthage_canons_on_sin_and_grace.htm (opens in a new tab)
  68. 68Pelagianism (Encyclopaedia Britannica)https://www.britannica.com/topic/Pelagianism (opens in a new tab)
  69. 69Councils of Orange, Catholic Encyclopedia (Catholic Answers)https://www.catholic.com/encyclopedia/councils-of-orange (opens in a new tab)
  70. 70Second Council of Orange (529), canons and conclusion (Internet Medieval Sourcebook, Fordham University)https://sourcebooks.web.fordham.edu/basis/orange.txt (opens in a new tab)
  71. 71Pope Boniface II, Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02660a.htm (opens in a new tab)
  72. 72Origen and Origenism, Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11306b.htm (opens in a new tab)
  73. 73Second Council of Constantinople (553), anathemas and The Anathemas Against Origen, NPNF II.14 (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3812.htm (opens in a new tab)
  74. 74Fourth Lateran Council (1215), canons (Internet Medieval Sourcebook, Fordham University)https://sourcebooks.web.fordham.edu/basis/lateran4.asp (opens in a new tab)
  75. 75Luther, The Bondage of the Will (Christian Classics Ethereal Library)https://www.ccel.org/ccel/luther/bondage.html (opens in a new tab)
  76. 76Desiderius Erasmus (Encyclopaedia Britannica)https://www.britannica.com/biography/Desiderius-Erasmus (opens in a new tab)
  77. 77Council of Trent, Decree Concerning Original Sin (EWTN)https://www.ewtn.com/catholicism/library/decree-concerning-original-sin--decree-concerning-reform-1495 (opens in a new tab)
  78. 78Schaff, Creeds of Christendom I, The Arminian Controversy and the Synod of Dort (Christian Classics Ethereal Library)https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds1.ix.iii.iv.html (opens in a new tab)
  79. 79Canons of the Synod of Dort, in Schaff, Creeds of Christendom III (Christian Classics Ethereal Library)https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds3.iv.xvi.html (opens in a new tab)
  80. 80Synod of Dort (Encyclopaedia Britannica)https://www.britannica.com/event/Synod-of-Dort (opens in a new tab)
  81. 81Westminster Confession of Faith, in Schaff, Creeds of Christendom III (Christian Classics Ethereal Library)https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds3.iv.xvii.ii.html (opens in a new tab)
  82. 82Schaff, Creeds of Christendom I, The Westminster Confession (Christian Classics Ethereal Library)https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/creeds1.ix.viii.iii.html (opens in a new tab)
  83. 83John Taylor, The Scripture Doctrine of Original Sin, 1740 (Internet Archive)https://archive.org/details/scripturedoctrin00tayl (opens in a new tab)
  84. 84John Wesley, The Doctrine of Original Sin, 1757 (Internet Archive)https://archive.org/details/doctrineoforigin00wesl (opens in a new tab)
  85. 85Jonathan Edwards (Encyclopaedia Britannica)https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jonathan-Edwards (opens in a new tab)
  86. 86Lawrence Pasternack and Courtney Fugate, "Kant's Philosophy of Religion" (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-religion/ (opens in a new tab)
  87. 87Todd Calder, "The Concept of Evil" (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/concept-evil/ (opens in a new tab)
  88. 88Pius XII, Humani generis, 1950 (Holy See)https://www.vatican.va/content/pius-xii/en/encyclicals/documents/hf_p-xii_enc_12081950_humani-generis.html (opens in a new tab)
  89. 89Valerie Saiving Goldstein, "The Human Situation: A Feminine View", The Journal of Religion 40.2, 1960 (Crossref record)https://doi.org/10.1086/485231 (opens in a new tab)
  90. 90Susan Henking, "A Feminine Complaint Against Theologians", 2010 (Religion Dispatches)https://religiondispatches.org/a-feminine-complaint-against-theologians/ (opens in a new tab)
  91. 91John Paul II, Sollicitudo rei socialis, 30 December 1987 (Holy See)https://www.vatican.va/content/john-paul-ii/en/encyclicals/documents/hf_jp-ii_enc_30121987_sollicitudo-rei-socialis.html (opens in a new tab)
  92. 92John Paul II, Reconciliatio et paenitentia, 2 December 1984 (Holy See)https://www.vatican.va/content/john-paul-ii/en/apost_exhortations/documents/hf_jp-ii_exh_02121984_reconciliatio-et-paenitentia.html (opens in a new tab)
  93. 93Original Sin and the Fall: Five Views, ebook (InterVarsity Press)https://ivpress.com/original-sin-and-the-fall-ebook (opens in a new tab)
  94. 94Aquinas, Summa theologiae I-II q. 71 (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/summa/2071.htm (opens in a new tab)
  95. 95Original sin (Encyclopaedia Britannica)https://www.britannica.com/topic/original-sin (opens in a new tab)
  96. 961 Enoch 10, tr. R. H. Charles (Internet Sacred Text Archive)https://sacred-texts.com/bib/boe/boe013.htm (opens in a new tab)
  97. 97Irenaeus, Against Heresies IV.38, ANF 1 (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103438.htm (opens in a new tab)
  98. 98Were Adam and Eve Historical Figures? (BioLogos)https://biologos.org/common-questions/were-adam-and-eve-historical-figures (opens in a new tab)
  99. 99Kevin Timpe, "Sin in Christian Thought" (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/sin-christian/ (opens in a new tab)
  100. 100Rik Peels, "Sin and Human Cognition of God", Scottish Journal of Theology 64, 2011 (Cambridge Core)https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/scottish-journal-of-theology/article/sin-and-human-cognition-of-god/04DBD49E05A6603D1F3C0A1B5F3800B5 (opens in a new tab)
  101. 101J. P. Hogan, "Puebla", New Catholic Encyclopedia (Encyclopedia.com)https://encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/puebla (opens in a new tab)
  102. 102Strong's H2398 chata' (Bible Hub)https://biblehub.com/hebrew/2398.htm (opens in a new tab)
  103. 103Strong's H2403 chatta'ah, chatta't (Bible Hub)https://biblehub.com/hebrew/2403.htm (opens in a new tab)
  104. 104Augustine, On the Merits and Remission of Sins I, NPNF I.5 (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/15011.htm (opens in a new tab)
  105. 105Original Sin, Catholic Encyclopedia, 1911 (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11312a.htm (opens in a new tab)
  106. 106J. A. Fitzmyer, "The Consecutive Meaning of ἐφ' ᾧ in Romans 5.12", New Testament Studies 39.3 (Cambridge Core)https://resolve.cambridge.org/core/journals/new-testament-studies/article/consecutive-meaning-of-e-in-romans-512/ADC4270FE5F666EE1B093D2C7E2F0385 (opens in a new tab)
  107. 107Pelagius and Pelagianism, Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11604a.htm (opens in a new tab)
  108. 108Englishman's Concordance H2403 (Bible Hub, bible.cc)https://bible.cc/hebrew/strongs_2403.htm (opens in a new tab)
  109. 109Strong's H7684 shegagah (Bible Hub)https://biblehub.com/hebrew/7684.htm (opens in a new tab)
  110. 110New American Bible, Leviticus 16 (USCCB)https://bible.usccb.org/bible/leviticus/16 (opens in a new tab)
  111. 111Translation commentary on Psalm 51:5 (United Bible Societies)https://tips.translation.bible/?p=36201 (opens in a new tab)
  112. 112New American Bible, Ezekiel 18 (USCCB)https://bible.usccb.org/bible/ezekiel/18 (opens in a new tab)
  113. 113"Israel and Paul in Romans 7.7 to 12", New Testament Studies (Cambridge Core)https://resolve.cambridge.org/core/journals/new-testament-studies/article/israel-and-paul-in-romans-7712/B894190A49B6981989166AED620970DF (opens in a new tab)
  114. 114Strong's G4561 sarx (Bible Hub)https://biblehub.com/greek/4561.htm (opens in a new tab)
  115. 115Strong's G458 anomia (Bible Hub)https://biblehub.com/greek/458.htm (opens in a new tab)
  116. 116On sin in 1 John, Andrews University Seminary Studies, 1987 (Andrews University)https://www.andrews.edu/library/car/cardigital/Periodicals/AUSS/1987-1/1987-1-13.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  117. 117Catechism of the Catholic Church, The Gravity of Sin: Mortal and Venial Sin (Holy See)https://www.vatican.va/content/catechism/en/part_three/section_one/chapter_one/article_8/iv_the_gravity_of_sin_mortal_and_venial_sin.html (opens in a new tab)
  118. 118Sirach 25:24 (Intertextual Bible)https://intertextual.bible/p/2475 (opens in a new tab)
  119. 119Wisdom 2:24 (Bible Gateway)https://www.biblegateway.com/verse/en/Wisdom%202:24 (opens in a new tab)
  120. 120The Rule of the Association and Related Texts (Oxford Academic)https://academic.oup.com/book/57370/chapter/464677607 (opens in a new tab)
  121. 121Irenaeus, Against Heresies V.16, ANF 1 (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103516.htm (opens in a new tab)
  122. 122Tertullian, De anima, ed. J. H. Waszink, Latin text (The Tertullian Project)https://www.tertullian.org/latin/de_anima.htm (opens in a new tab)
  123. 123Athanasius, On the Incarnation of the Word, NPNF II.4 (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2802.htm (opens in a new tab)
  124. 124Augustine, Confessions II, NPNF I.1 (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/110102.htm (opens in a new tab)
  125. 125Augustine, City of God XIII, NPNF I.2 (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/120113.htm (opens in a new tab)
  126. 126Second Vatican Council, Gaudium et spes, 7 December 1965 (Holy See)https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19651207_gaudium-et-spes_en.html (opens in a new tab)
  127. 127Catechism of the Catholic Church, paragraphs 385 to 421, The Fall (Holy See)https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P1C.HTM (opens in a new tab)
  128. 128Sin, Catholic Encyclopedia, 1912 (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14004b.htm (opens in a new tab)
  129. 129Sin (Encyclopaedia Britannica)https://www.britannica.com/topic/sin-religion (opens in a new tab)
  130. 130Biblical languages library guide, on TDOT (Houston Christian University)https://hbu.libguides.com/biblical-languages (opens in a new tab)
  131. 131Julius Müller, The Christian Doctrine of Sin, volume 1 (Theological Commons, Princeton Theological Seminary)https://commons.ptsem.edu/id/christiandoctrin01mull (opens in a new tab)
  132. 132Herman Bavinck, Reformed Dogmatics volume 3, catalogue record (Johannelund School of Theology Library)https://bibliotekils.johannelund.nu/bib/137647 (opens in a new tab)
  133. 133Micah D. Kiel, review of Anderson, Sin: A History, Journal of Hebrew Scriptures 11, 2011 (jhsonline.org)https://jhsonline.org/index.php/jhs/article/download/11530/8848?inline=1 (opens in a new tab)
  134. 134S. Schweitzer, review of Lam, Patterns of Sin in the Hebrew Bible, 6 April 2017 (Reading Religion)https://readingreligion.org/books/patterns-sin-hebrew-bible (opens in a new tab)
  135. 135James T. Bretzke, review of T&T Clark Companion to the Doctrine of Sin (Theological Studies)https://theologicalstudies.net/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/Bretzke-T_T-Clark-Companion-to-the-Doctrine-of-Sin.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  136. 136Original Sin and the Fall: Five Views (InterVarsity Press)https://ivpress.com/original-sin-and-the-fall (opens in a new tab)
  137. 137Knierim, Die Hauptbegriffe für Sünde im Alten Testament, 1965 (WorldCat)https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/263664631 (opens in a new tab)
  138. 138Obituary of Rolf and Hildegard Knierim (Claremont Courier)https://claremont-courier.com/obituaries/t29770-knierim-31171/ (opens in a new tab)
  139. 139Piet Schoonenberg, Man and Sin, catalogue record (Texas A&M University Libraries)https://libcat.library.tamu.edu/Record/in00000291645 (opens in a new tab)
  140. 140Andrew Sung Park, faculty directory (United Theological Seminary)https://united.edu/faculty-directory/andrew-sung-park/ (opens in a new tab)
  141. 141Cornelius Plantinga Jr., Not the Way It's Supposed to Be (WTS Books)https://www.wtsbooks.com/products/not-the-way-its-supposed-to-be-cornelius-plantinga-9780802842183 (opens in a new tab)
  142. 142Henri Blocher, Original Sin: Illuminating the Riddle (InterVarsity Press)https://ivpress.com/original-sin (opens in a new tab)
  143. 143Alistair McFadyen, Bound to Sin, catalogue record (University of Southern Indiana Library)https://library.usi.edu/record/400848 (opens in a new tab)
  144. 144Tatha Wiley, Original Sin: Origins, Developments, Contemporary Meanings (WorldCat)https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/50404061 (opens in a new tab)
  145. 145Ian A. McFarland, In Adam's Fall, author information (Wiley)https://gov.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-1405183659,descCd-authorInfo.html (opens in a new tab)
  146. 146Review of Jesse Couenhoven, Stricken by Sin, Cured by Christ (ValpoScholar, Valparaiso University)https://scholar.valpo.edu/cc_fac_pub/53 (opens in a new tab)
  147. 147Thomas H. McCall, faculty profile (Asbury Theological Seminary)https://asburyseminary.edu/faculty/thomas-mccall/ (opens in a new tab)
  148. 148hamartiology (Online Etymology Dictionary)https://www.etymonline.com/word/hamartiology (opens in a new tab)
  149. 149Strong's G264 hamartanō (Bible Hub)https://biblehub.com/greek/264.htm (opens in a new tab)
  150. 150Strong's G266 hamartia (Bible Hub)https://biblehub.com/greek/266.htm (opens in a new tab)
  151. 151Augustine, On Marriage and Concupiscence I, NPNF I.5 (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/15071.htm (opens in a new tab)
  152. 152Aquinas, Summa theologiae I-II q. 88 (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/summa/2088.htm (opens in a new tab)
  153. 153Tertullian, Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14520c.htm (opens in a new tab)
  154. 154Traducianism, Catholic Encyclopedia (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15014a.htm (opens in a new tab)
  155. 155Inclination, Good and Evil, Encyclopaedia Judaica (Jewish Virtual Library)https://jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0009_0_09520.html (opens in a new tab)
  156. 156R. J. V. Hiebert, tr., Genesis, A New English Translation of the Septuagint, 2007 (University of Pennsylvania)https://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/nets/edition/01-gen-nets.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  157. 157Catechism of the Catholic Church, paragraphs 1861 to 1864 (USCCB)https://www.usccb.org/sites/default/files/flipbooks/catechism/458/index.html (opens in a new tab)
  158. 158Articles of Religion of the Methodist Church (United Methodist Church)https://www.umc.org/en/content/articles-of-religion (opens in a new tab)
  159. 159Adam and the Genome (Baker Publishing Group)https://www.bakerpublishinggroup.com/books/adam-and-the-genome/381910 (opens in a new tab)
  160. 160S. J. Swamidass, The Genealogical Adam and Eve, ebook (InterVarsity Press)https://www.ivpress.com/the-genealogical-adam-and-eve-ebook (opens in a new tab)

Page record

Reviewed and approved by Duane Herholdt, BA (Theology), Chief Executive Officer, Numa Verse

Study version: v1.1, 14 October 2026 (theology map v1.27)

Last reviewed: 9 November 2026

How these pages are made

  • 9 November 2026: First draft from the approved study v1.1.