Numa Verse

Systematic theologyWhat does it teach as a whole?

Eschatology

What is eschatology?

Eschatology is the doctrine of the last things: death, judgment, heaven and hell, and in fuller accounts the intermediate state, the return of Christ, the resurrection of the body, the millennium and the renewal of creation. It is a locus of systematic theology, traditionally the last, and since the twentieth century often the horizon of the whole.

  • 147Sources
  • 20Traditions
  • 16Dated entries
  • 17Minutes

Study v1.1, 15 October 2026

Eschatology

At a glance

Why it matters for reading Scripture

The last things: death, resurrection, judgment and the new creation. It draws strong interest and strong disagreement.

What the study found

The doctrine of the last things moved in the twentieth century from the end of dogmatics to its centre, and remains an active field.

Where traditions divide

Traditions divide on final destiny, purgatory, the intermediate state, and premillennial, postmillennial and amillennial readings.

How the traditions compare

  • Catholic Church

    Teaches a particular judgment at the very moment of death, leading to heaven, through a purification or at once, or to damnation; those perfectly purified see God face to face, which the Catechism names the beatific vision.

    Purgatory, formulated at the Councils of Florence and Trent, is a final purification "entirely different from the punishment of the damned", and hell is "definitive self-exclusion from communion with God and the blessed". The resurrection of all the dead precedes the Last Judgment, after which the universe is renewed.

    Sources1–6

  • Eastern Orthodox churches

    Have no single catechism; the conciliar statement on the last things is the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed.

    The Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America teaches that after death the soul is conscious, that judgment at death begins its experience of Paradise or Hell, and that there is no repentance afterwards, while the Church prays for the departed; it does not believe in purgatory and rejects indulgences. The Orthodox Church in America teaches that Christ's "very presence will be the judgment", joy for those who love him and torment for those who reject him. The teaching on aerial toll-houses after death is disputed within Orthodoxy and has never been proclaimed as dogma.

    Sources7–11

  • Oriental Orthodox churches

    No synod-level statement on the last things is cited for any of these churches, so the accounts here come from parish and association texts and do not speak for the family as a whole.

    A Coptic dictionary of church terms on a parish website describes Paradise as the abode of the righteous awaiting final judgment, and an Armenian parish offers the Requiem for those fallen asleep in Christ. Mahibere Kidusan, an association within the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, teaches bodily resurrection at the Second Coming, followed by eternal life for the righteous and eternal punishment for the wicked; that church's canon includes the Book of Enoch and the Book of Jubilees.

    Sources12–15

  • Assyrian Church of the East

    A catechism published on a diocesan site teaches that death is twofold, physical and spiritual, that the soul does not pass away at death, and that those who choose against Christ are destined to eternal banishment, separation from God.

    The historic East Syriac tradition is associated with the sleep of the soul: for Aphrahat, in the fourth century, the soul lies without sensation until the resurrection, a view J. Edward Walters notes was uncommon among early Christians.

    Sources16–17

  • Lutheran churches

    The Augsburg Confession (1530), Article XVII, teaches that at the consummation Christ raises all the dead, gives the godly eternal life and condemns the ungodly "to be tormented without end", and condemns the teaching that the godly will possess the kingdom of the world before the resurrection.

    The Lutheran Church Missouri Synod rejects "every type of millennialism, or Chiliasm", and its Commission on Theology and Church Relations calls the eschatology of the Lutheran Confessions "clearly amillennialist". The ELCA endorsed the Lutheran and Roman Catholic dialogue report The Hope of Eternal Life (2010).

    Sources18–21

  • Reformed churches

    The Westminster Confession (1646) teaches that the souls of the righteous are received into the highest heavens and the wicked go to hell, with no other place for souls separated from their bodies; that at the last day the dead are raised "with the selfsame bodies"; and that God has appointed a day of judgment, the wicked being cast into eternal torments.

    The Belgic Confession (1561) teaches that Christ will burn this old world in order to cleanse it, and the Heidelberg Catechism (1563) that the soul is taken immediately to Christ.

    Sources22–24

  • Anglican churches

    Article XXII of the Thirty-nine Articles (1571) calls the Romish doctrine of purgatory "a fond thing vainly invented", grounded upon no warranty of Scripture.

    The Church of England Doctrine Commission's report The Mystery of Salvation (dated 1995, published January 1996), as reported by the Anglican Communion News Service, suggested that hell may be a state of total non-being rather than eternal torment; a commission report is not a synodical definition of doctrine.

    Sources25–26

  • Methodist churches

    The United Methodist Articles of Religion, Wesley's 1784 abridgment of the Anglican Articles, teach that Christ sits until he returns to judge all men at the last day, and reject the Romish doctrine of purgatory.

    The Confession of Faith of the Evangelical United Brethren Church, which the United Methodist Church counts among its doctrinal standards, affirms the resurrection of the dead, "the righteous to life eternal and the wicked to endless condemnation".

    Sources27–29

  • Baptist churches

    The Baptist Faith and Message 2000 of the Southern Baptist Convention teaches that Jesus Christ will return personally and visibly in glory to the earth, that the dead will be raised and judged, that the unrighteous will be consigned to hell, "the place of everlasting punishment", and that the righteous will dwell forever in heaven; it takes no millennial position.

    The Second London Baptist Confession (1689) follows Westminster closely, with one difference: the souls of the righteous are received into paradise, where Westminster says the highest heavens.

    Sources30–31

  • Mennonite churches

    The Confession of Faith in a Mennonite Perspective (1995), Article 24, places the church's hope in the reign of God, fulfilled when Christ comes again in glory to judge the living and the dead: the righteous rise to eternal life with God and the unrighteous to hell and separation from God, and God brings justice to the persecuted.

    Sources32

  • Pentecostal churches

    The Assemblies of God teaches as the Blessed Hope the resurrection of believers and their translation with those who are alive, followed by the visible return of Christ with his saints to reign on earth for one thousand years, and the Church of God (Cleveland, Tennessee) confesses the premillennial second coming.

    The Foursquare Church holds that the second coming is personal and imminent but has no separate article on the millennium, so Pentecostal confessions are not uniform. These are classical Pentecostal denominations in North America; the wider Pentecostal and charismatic world, much of it in the global South, also ties hope for the end to the present work of the Spirit in healing and mission.

    Sources33–36

  • Seventh-day Adventist Church

    The Fundamental Beliefs teach that in 1844, at the end of the 2300 days, Christ entered the second and last phase of his atoning ministry in the heavenly sanctuary; that his coming will be literal, personal, visible and worldwide; that until that day death is an unconscious state for all people; that the saints reign with Christ in heaven for a thousand years, after which fire consumes Satan and the unrighteous; and that God provides an eternal home for the redeemed on the new earth.

    Sources37

  • Dispensational evangelicalism

    The Doctrinal Statement of Dallas Theological Seminary, an institution closely identified with the school, holds that the dispensations are distinct and that the Church is distinct from Israel.

    It teaches the coming of the Lord in the air to receive his own into heaven, after which Israel's seventieth week is fulfilled while the church is in heaven, a pretribulational rapture, and then Christ's return to introduce the millennial age. At death believers' souls pass immediately into his presence, and unbelievers are punished with everlasting destruction rather than annihilated.

    Sources38

  • Jehovah's Witnesses

    Teach that the words translated "hell" refer to the common grave of mankind, that the dead are unconscious, and that God has set death, not torment in a fiery hell, as the penalty for sin.

    Jesus rules with 144,000 corulers, a few receive life in heaven, and the rest live in a global paradise on earth. They understand the parousia as the royal presence of Christ as King from 1914, and hold that he is present invisibly.

    Sources39–41

  • Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

    Teaches that at death spirits separate from their bodies and await the resurrection in the spirit world, where paradise is the abode of the righteous and hell may mean a temporary spirit prison.

    Following Doctrine and Covenants 76, it teaches three kingdoms of glory, celestial, terrestrial and telestial, and an outer darkness for those who received a testimony through the Holy Ghost and then denied it.

    Sources42–43

  • Christadelphians

    The Birmingham Amended Statement of Faith grounds human mortality in Adam's sentence to return to the ground.

    Christ will come personally to the earth to judge the responsible; the faithful are invested with immortality and the unfaithful consigned to the second death; and God sets up a kingdom in the earth, the kingdom of Israel restored, for a thousand years, at whose close come a general resurrection and judgment and the final extinction of the wicked.

    Sources44

  • Eternal conscious punishment

    The traditional and still majority position in confessional texts: the lost exist forever under punishment or self-chosen separation.

    The Augsburg Confession, the Westminster Confession, the Baptist Faith and Message 2000 and the Dallas Theological Seminary statement teach it, and the Catholic Church affirms the existence and eternity of hell. Thomas Talbott records a free-will form, in which the damned "lock themselves in", held by C. S. Lewis, Jerry Walls and Richard Swinburne; Denny Burk defends the position in Four Views on Hell (2016).

    Sources41822303845–46

  • Conditional immortality

    Holds that God gives immortality only to those who receive it, and that the wicked finally die and cease to exist.

    Its main modern text is Edward Fudge's The Fire That Consumes (1982); the anthology Rethinking Hell (2014) gathers conditionalist writing, and the Rethinking Hell movement held its first conference in Houston on 11 and 12 July 2014. In their own terms, Seventh-day Adventists, Jehovah's Witnesses and Christadelphians also teach the final end of the wicked.

    Sources37394447–49

  • Universalism

    Holds that all will finally be reconciled to God.

    Origen is the main patristic source of apokatastasis, the restoration of all rational beings, though he hesitated over the devils, and Gregory of Nyssa is read by some as teaching it. Ilaria Ramelli argues that Origenian universalism was central for nine centuries, while Michael McClymond finds "historiographic problems" in her account. Modern advocates include Thomas Talbott, Robin Parry and David Bentley Hart, whose That All Shall Be Saved appeared from Yale University Press in 2019.

    Sources4550–53

  • Hopeful universalism

    Separates hope from doctrine: universal salvation may be hoped for but is not taught as certain.

    Richard John Neuhaus summarizes Hans Urs von Balthasar's Dare We Hope "That All Men Be Saved"? (1986; English 1988) as "we do not know; only God knows; but we may hope". The objections Neuhaus records are that it contradicts the revealed fact of damnation, makes being Christian less necessary and undercuts evangelization.

    Sources54

How the field developed

  1. Early church
    2nd century

    Papias, Justin Martyr and Irenaeus hold a visible reign of Christ on earth after the resurrection, the thousand years of Revelation 20, though Justin concedes that "many who belong to the pure and pious faith" do not share the view.5556

  2. Early church
    3rd century

    Origen opposes literal chiliasm through allegorical exegesis and becomes the main source of the doctrine of apokatastasis, the final restoration of all rational beings.50

  3. Late antiquity
    5th century

    Augustine's City of God, Book XX, reads the binding of Satan as the restraint of the strong man of Matthew 12 and the reign of the saints as the present reign of Christ in the Church. This reading of the thousand years becomes dominant in the West.57

  4. Late antiquity
    543

    A synod at Constantinople condemns apokatastasis in the first of its anathemas. Whether the 15 anathemas against Origenism are acts of the council of 553 remains disputed.505859

  5. Medieval
    1196

    Joachim of Fiore founds the Order of San Giovanni in Fiore. He reads history as three ages, of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, a prophecy the Spiritual Franciscans take up in the mid thirteenth century.60

  6. Medieval
    29 January 1336

    Benedict XII's Benedictus Deus defines that the souls of the just enjoy the "immediate intuitive vision of God" before the resurrection, against the deferred-vision view of John XXII.61

  7. Medieval
    1439 and 1563

    The Council of Florence affirms purgatory without a dogmatic decree on purgatorial fire, and the Council of Trent, in its twenty-fifth session, declares "that there is a purgatory" and that souls are helped by the suffrages of the faithful.626364

  8. Reformation
    1646 to 1648

    The Westminster Confession recognizes only two places for separated souls, heaven and hell, and one day of judgment whose date is unknown. It is completed in 1646, adopted by the Church of Scotland in 1647 and approved by Parliament in 1648.2265

  9. Modern
    1831

    John Nelson Darby and the Powerscourt conferences set the distinction between Israel and the Church and an any-moment return of the Lord on the agenda.66

  10. Modern
    22 October 1844

    The date set for the advent by the Millerite movement passes. William Miller had preached from 1831 that the world would end about 1843, and the Advent Christian Church and the Seventh-day Adventist Church follow as successor bodies.67

  11. Modern
    1892

    Johannes Weiss's study of Jesus' proclamation of the Kingdom of God argues that Jesus expected the imminent reign of God; Wolfhart Pannenberg names it as the starting point of the modern recovery of eschatology.6869

  12. Modern
    1935

    C. H. Dodd's The Parables of the Kingdom argues for a realized eschatology, in which the Kingdom comes in the life, death and resurrection of Jesus.7071

  13. Modern
    1964 and 1967

    Jürgen Moltmann's Theologie der Hoffnung (English Theology of Hope, 1967) makes hope and the Kingdom of God the frame of theology. Moltmann passed away in Tübingen on 3 June 2024, aged 98.72

  14. Modern
    21 November 1964

    The Second Vatican Council's Lumen Gentium, chapter VII, teaches the pilgrim Church and a restoration already begun in Christ.7374

  15. Modern
    2011 to 2019

    Hell becomes a public controversy: Time's cover story "Is Hell Dead?" on Rob Bell's Love Wins (2011), the first conference of the Rethinking Hell movement in Houston (2014), and David Bentley Hart's That All Shall Be Saved (2019).754953

  16. Modern
    6 May 2026

    Pope Leo XIV gives a general audience on chapter VII of Lumen Gentium, on the Church's "eschatological dimension" between the "already" and the "not yet".76

How to study eschatology

The questions it asks

  • Is eschatology one locus of doctrine among others, or the dimension of every locus?
  • Did Jesus expect an imminent end, and how should the delay of the parousia be understood?
  • What happens to the person between death and resurrection, and how can the person who dies be the same person who is raised?77
  • What is the final destiny of the lost: eternal conscious punishment, final extinction, or reconciliation with God?45
  • How should the thousand years of Revelation 20 be read, and is there a rapture distinct from the return of Christ?
  • How far is the hope of the last things to be realized in history, and how far does it remain God's future beyond history?

Its method

Start

  1. Read the biblical texts in their own historical order, from the Hebrew Bible through the Second Temple writings to the New Testament, without reading later doctrine back into them; Kaufmann Kohler judged in 1906 that the Bible holds "no fixed eschatological system"78.

  2. Keep the neighboring categories apart: the apocalypse as a literary genre, apocalyptic eschatology as a religious perspective, and apocalypticism as the ideology of a movement that adopts it79.

  3. Divide the material between individual eschatology, covering death, the particular judgment, heaven, purgatory and hell, and universal eschatology, covering the end of the world, the resurrection of the body, the general judgment and the final consummation80.

  4. Trace the doctrine through commentary on Scripture, creeds, conciliar decrees and confessions, noting what each milestone settled for those who received it without assuming that every tradition accepted it.

  5. Describe each tradition from its own documents, and name the kind of source used where a synod or council text cannot be reached.

  6. Set rival positions side by side, each stated by its own holders, as the multi-view volumes on the millennium, Revelation, the rapture and hell do8146.

  7. Test claims about survival, resurrection, heaven and hell by argument on personal identity, freedom and divine goodness, as the philosophy of the afterlife does4577.

What to read

Its primary witnesses

  • The Hebrew Bible on Sheol, the Day of the LORD and resurrection, among them Isaiah 24 to 27, Ezekiel 37 and Daniel 12:2828378.
  • The Second Temple writings: 1 Enoch, Jubilees, the War Scroll and 4Q521 among the Dead Sea Scrolls, the Psalms of Solomon, 4 Ezra and 2 Baruch848586878889.
  • The New Testament: the Olivet Discourse, Paul's letters, John, Hebrews, 2 Peter and Revelation909192.
  • The Didache, chapter 16, and the Fathers, among them Irenaeus, Against Heresies V, and Augustine, City of God, Book XX935657.
  • Conciliar and papal texts: Benedictus Deus (1336), the decrees of Florence and Trent, Lumen Gentium, chapter VII (1964), and the Catechism of the Catholic Church616264731.
  • The Reformation confessions: the Augsburg Confession, Article XVII, the Westminster Confession and the Heidelberg Catechism182224.
  • The statements of later bodies, from the Seventh-day Adventist Fundamental Beliefs to the Doctrinal Statement of Dallas Theological Seminary3738.
  • Survey data on what believers say, such as Pew Research Center's survey of April 2022 on the end times94.
  • Digital collections: the Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library, the Christian Classics Ethereal Library and the Perseus Digital Library959697.

Standard reference works

  • The Oxford Handbook of Eschatology (2008), edited by Jerry L. Walls, with 38 chapters on historical eschatology, the Christian traditions and theological, philosophical and cultural issues98.
  • Markus Mühling's T&T Clark Handbook of Christian Eschatology (2015), a single-author systematic handbook99.
  • The Encyclopedia of Apocalypticism (1998), edited by Bernard McGinn, John J. Collins and Stephen J. Stein100.
  • The Oxford Handbook of Apocalyptic Literature (2014) and The Oxford Handbook of Millennialism (2011)101102.
  • Ian A. McFarland's chapter "Eschatology" in The New Cambridge Companion to Christian Doctrine (2022)103.
  • The Bloomsbury Handbook of Apocalypticism and Millennialism (2025), edited by Tristan Sturm and Andrew Crome104105.
  • Textbooks written from within a tradition: Anthony Hoekema's The Bible and the Future, George Eldon Ladd's The Presence of the Future, Jürgen Moltmann's The Coming of God, Joseph Ratzinger's Eschatology: Death and Eternal Life, Hans Schwarz's Eschatology and Anthony Thiselton's The Last Things106107108109110111.
  • The Zondervan multi-view volumes: Three Views on the Millennium and Beyond (1999), Four Views on the Book of Revelation (1998), Three Views on the Rapture (second edition, 2018) and Four Views on Hell (second edition, 2016)8111211346.
  • James H. Charlesworth's The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha and George Nickelsburg and James VanderKam's 1 Enoch: The Hermeneia Translation (2012)114115.
  • Journals such as the Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha, Dead Sea Discoveries, Nova Religio and the Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society; no journal is dedicated to Christian eschatology as a whole116117118119.
  • The Critical Dictionary of Apocalyptic and Millenarian Movements, open access since January 2021120.

Scholarship referenced in this study

The works below shaped the field and are cited in this study, from the earliest to the most recent. Hover over a book, or select it, to see its author and the sources behind it.

  • 1964Theology of HopeJürgen MoltmannTheology of Hope (1964)Jürgen Moltmann (1926 to 2024)Sources121–122
  • 1971New Testament Eschatology in an African BackgroundJohn S. MbitiNew Testament Eschatology in an African Background (1971)John S. Mbiti (1931 to 2019)Sources123
  • 1984The Apocalyptic ImaginationJohn J. CollinsThe Apocalyptic Imagination (1984)John J. CollinsSources124
  • 1985Mission Between the Times: Essays on the KingdomC. René PadillaMission Between the Times: Essays on the Kingdom (1985)C. René Padilla (1932 to 2021)Sources125
  • 1993The Theology of the Book of RevelationRichard BauckhamThe Theology of the Book of Revelation (1993)Richard BauckhamSources126
  • 1993Systematic Theology IIIWolfhart PannenbergSystematic Theology III (1993)Wolfhart Pannenberg (1928 to 2014)Sources127–128
  • 1993Jesus and the Reign of GodChoan-Seng SongJesus and the Reign of God (1993)Choan-Seng Song (1929 to 2024)Sources129–130
  • 1998Jesus of Nazareth: Millenarian ProphetDale C. Allison Jr.Jesus of Nazareth: Millenarian Prophet (1998)Dale C. Allison Jr.Sources131
  • 2002The God of Hope and the End of the WorldJohn PolkinghorneThe God of Hope and the End of the World (2002)John Polkinghorne (1930 to 2021)Sources132
  • 2006Resurrection and the Restoration of IsraelJon D. LevensonResurrection and the Restoration of Israel (2006)Jon D. LevensonSources133
  • 2012The Last ThingsAnthony C. ThiseltonThe Last Things (2012)Anthony C. Thiselton (1937 to 2023)Sources134
  • 2013The Christian Doctrine of ApokatastasisIlaria L. E. RamelliThe Christian Doctrine of Apokatastasis (2013)Ilaria L. E. RamelliSources135

Listed because this study draws on their published work; no association with or endorsement of Numa Verse is implied. Suggest a correction.

Key terms

The words that carry the most weight in this field, each defined from the sources of this study. Turn a card over to read its definition.

The doctrine of the last things or end times, from the Greek eschatos, last; its first known use as a theological heading is Abraham Calov's Eschatologia Sacra, which Gerhard Sauter dates to 1677136137138.

In the Hebrew Bible, the grave or the underground realm of all the dead, not a place of punishment; the Septuagint renders it Hades82.

Ge-Hinnom, a valley by Jerusalem, later the place where the wicked are tormented139.

The arrival of an important figure; in the New Testament, the coming of Jesus140.

The condition of the person between death and the general resurrection, conscious in the teaching of most churches and unconscious in that of Seventh-day Adventists and Jehovah's Witnesses13739.

The final restoration of all rational beings, of which Origen is the main source; it was condemned in the first anathema of 54350.

In Catholic teaching, the purification after death of those who die in God's grace but still imperfectly purified, entirely different from the punishment of the damned3.

The belief that Christ will establish a 1,000-year reign of the saints on earth before the Last Judgment, drawn from Revelation 20141.

The catching up of believers in 1 Thessalonians 4:17; premillennialists debate whether it comes before, during or after a future tribulation, or before the outpouring of divine wrath142143.

C. H. Dodd's view that the Kingdom came in the life, death and resurrection of Jesus; inaugurated eschatology holds that these began God's reign without exhausting it7071.

Where it sits

Builds on

Eschatology

From the Journal

A broken iron chain on dark rock with a golden dawn rising beyondAI-generated imageEschatology

Why do Christians read the millennium in Revelation 20 differently?

Revelation 20 speaks of Satan bound and the saints reigning with Christ for a thousand years. Christians read it in three main ways: as a future reign on earth after Christ returns, as the present age of the Church, or as a golden age before his return. All agree that Christ will return; they differ on how this one passage fits.Numa Verse Editorial · November 2026 · 5 min read

Questions people ask

No, though the two overlap. The apocalypse is a literary genre, defined in the form most widely used by John J. Collins in Semeia 14 (1979), and apocalypticism is the ideology of a movement that expects an imminent end79100. Eschatology is the broader category: any teaching about the last things, personal or cosmic, near or distant136100.

No. The Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Reformation confessions teach that the person survives death consciously1722, while Seventh-day Adventists teach that until the resurrection "death is an unconscious state for all people", and Jehovah's Witnesses that the dead are unconscious3739. Among philosophers, John W. Cooper defends a holistic dualism in which the soul survives between death and resurrection, while Nancey Murphy holds that Christian hope is staked on bodily resurrection rather than an immortal soul144145.

It runs between eternal conscious punishment, the traditional and still majority position in confessional texts; conditional immortality, in which the wicked finally cease to exist; and universalism, in which all are finally reconciled to God4546. Hopeful universalism, associated with Hans Urs von Balthasar, hopes that all may be saved without teaching it as certain54.

No. Premillennialists hold that Christ returns before an earthly thousand-year reign, postmillennialists that he returns after a millennium, and amillennialists that the thousand years are the present reign of Christ146147. Some confessions leave the question open, among them the Baptist Faith and Message 200030, and within premillennialism the rapture is debated between pretribulation, midtribulation, pre-wrath and posttribulation views142143.

In a Pew Research Center survey of April 2022, 39% of US adults said "we are living in the end times", including 63% of evangelical Protestants, and 10% said Jesus will definitely or probably return in their lifetime94.

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  1. 1Catechism of the Catholic Church, paras 1021 to 1022 (Holy See)https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P2L.HTM (opens in a new tab)
  2. 2Catechism of the Catholic Church, paras 1023 to 1029 (Holy See)https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P2M.HTM (opens in a new tab)
  3. 3Catechism of the Catholic Church, paras 1030 to 1032 (Holy See)https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P2N.HTM (opens in a new tab)
  4. 4Catechism of the Catholic Church, paras 1033 to 1037 (Holy See)https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P2O.HTM (opens in a new tab)
  5. 5Catechism of the Catholic Church, paras 1038 to 1041 (Holy See)https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P2P.HTM (opens in a new tab)
  6. 6Catechism of the Catholic Church, paras 1042 to 1050 (Holy See)https://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P2Q.HTM (opens in a new tab)
  7. 7Death, the Threshold to Eternal Life (Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America)https://www.goarch.org/-/death-the-threshold-to-eternal-life (opens in a new tab)
  8. 8Indulgences (Orthodox Church in America)https://www.oca.org/questions/romancatholicism/indulgences (opens in a new tab)
  9. 9Heaven and Hell (Orthodox Church in America)https://www.oca.org/orthodoxy/the-orthodox-faith/spirituality/the-kingdom-of-heaven/heaven-and-hell (opens in a new tab)
  10. 10Ladouceur, Orthodox Theologies of the Afterlife (Ancient Faith blogs)https://blogs.ancientfaith.com/orthodoxyandheterodoxy/2017/08/18/orthodox-theologies-of-the-afterlife-review-of-the-departure-of-the-soul (opens in a new tab)
  11. 11Ladouceur, review article (St Vladimir's Theological Quarterly 62.1, 2018)https://www.trinityorthodox.ca/documents/Review_Article_Orthodox_Theologies_of_the_Afterlife.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  12. 12Dictionary of Coptic Orthodox Church Terms, Paradise (St-Takla.org)https://st-takla.org/faith/en/terms/paradise.html (opens in a new tab)
  13. 13Hokehankist: Requiem Service (Armenian Church of Our Saviour, Worcester MA)https://acoos.org/873-2 (opens in a new tab)
  14. 14The Sacrament of the Resurrection of the Dead (Mahibere Kidusan USA)https://nextgeneration.eotcmk.org/seven-sacraments/the-sacrament-of-the-resurrection-of-the-dead (opens in a new tab)
  15. 15The Ethiopian Orthodox Bible: A Unique Biblical Canon (Mahibere Kidusan USA)https://nextgeneration.eotcmk.org/learn-geez/blog/the-ethiopian-orthodox-bible-a-unique-biblical-canon (opens in a new tab)
  16. 16Catechism of the Church of the East, 2020 edition (Assyrian Church of the East)https://bethkokheh.assyrianchurch.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/catechism-of-the-Church-of-the-East-edited-in-the-year-2020.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  17. 17Walters, Sleep of the Soul and Resurrection of the Body (Hugoye)https://hugoye.bethmardutho.org/article/hv22n2walters (opens in a new tab)
  18. 18Augsburg Confession, Article XVII (Book of Concord)https://bookofconcord.org/augsburg-confession/article-xvii (opens in a new tab)
  19. 19LCMS Brief Statement (Project Wittenberg)https://www.projectwittenberg.org/pub/resources/text/wittenberg/mosynod/web/doct-16.html (opens in a new tab)
  20. 20The "End Times": A Study on Eschatology and Millennialism (LCMS Commission on Theology and Church Relations)https://tlcnorman.org/files/LSF/LCMS_onthe_End_Times.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  21. 21News release, 26 October 2010 (United States Conference of Catholic Bishops)https://www.usccb.org/news/2010/10-189.cfm (opens in a new tab)
  22. 22Westminster Confession of Faith (Orthodox Presbyterian Church)https://www.opc.org/wcf.html (opens in a new tab)
  23. 23Belgic Confession (Christian Reformed Church in North America)https://www.crcna.org/welcome/beliefs/confessions/belgic-confession (opens in a new tab)
  24. 24Heidelberg Catechism (Christian Reformed Church in North America)https://www.crcna.org/welcome/beliefs/confessions/heidelberg-catechism (opens in a new tab)
  25. 25Article 22: Of Purgatory (Church Society)https://www.churchsociety.org/article-22-of-purgatory (opens in a new tab)
  26. 26Doctrine Commission report on The Mystery of Salvation (Anglican Communion News Service)https://www.anglicannews.org/news/1996/02/england-doctrine-commission-report-on-the-mystery-of-salvation.aspx (opens in a new tab)
  27. 27Articles of Religion (United Methodist Church)https://www.umc.org/en/content/articles-of-religion (opens in a new tab)
  28. 28Glossary: doctrinal standards (United Methodist Church)https://www.umc.org/content/glossary-doctrinal-standards (opens in a new tab)
  29. 29Confession of Faith of the Evangelical United Brethren Church (United Methodist Church)https://www.umc.org/en/content/confession-of-faith (opens in a new tab)
  30. 30Baptist Faith and Message 2000 (Southern Baptist Convention)https://bfm.sbc.net/bfm2000 (opens in a new tab)
  31. 31Baptist Confession 1689 (Friston Baptist Church)https://www.fristonbaptistsuffolk.org.uk/Baptist%20Confession%201689.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  32. 32Confession of Faith, Article 24, The Reign of God (Mennonite Church USA)https://www.mennoniteusa.org/who-are-mennonites/what-we-believe/confession-of-faith/the-reign-of-god (opens in a new tab)
  33. 33Statement of Fundamental Truths (Assemblies of God)https://ag.org/Beliefs/Statement-of-Fundamental-Truths (opens in a new tab)
  34. 34We Believe (Church of God)https://churchofgod.org/?p=641 (opens in a new tab)
  35. 35Statement of Faith (Foursquare Church)https://resources.foursquare.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2024/08/Statement-of-Faith-ENG.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  36. 36The Routledge Handbook of Pentecostal Theology, ed. Vondey, 2020 (Routledge)https://www.routledge.com/products/9781138580893 (opens in a new tab)
  37. 37Fundamental Beliefs (Seventh-day Adventist Church)https://www.adventist.org/beliefs (opens in a new tab)
  38. 38Doctrinal Statement (Dallas Theological Seminary)https://www.dts.edu/about/doctrinal-statement (opens in a new tab)
  39. 39What Is Hell? (jw.org)https://www.jw.org/en/bible-teachings/questions/what-is-hell (opens in a new tab)
  40. 40Do All Faithful Christians Go to Heaven? (Watchtower Online Library)https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/2011405 (opens in a new tab)
  41. 41The Watchtower, 1 May 1993, "Shedding Light on Christ's Presence" (Watchtower Online Library)https://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/1993323 (opens in a new tab)
  42. 42Gospel Topics, Degrees of Glory (The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints)https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/gospel-topics/degrees-of-glory (opens in a new tab)
  43. 43Gospel Principles, chapter 46 (The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints)https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/gospel-principles/chapter-46-the-final-judgment (opens in a new tab)
  44. 44The Christadelphian Statement of Faith (christadelphia.org)https://www.christadelphia.org/basf.php (opens in a new tab)
  45. 45Heaven and Hell in Christian Thought (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/heaven-hell (opens in a new tab)
  46. 46Four Views on Hell (Zondervan Academic)https://zondervanacademic.com/products/four-views-on-hell1 (opens in a new tab)
  47. 47The Fire That Consumes, forewords extract (Lutterworth Press)https://www.lutterworth.com/wp-content/uploads/extracts/fire-that-consumes-forewords.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  48. 48Rethinking Hell: Readings in Evangelical Conditionalism (Lutterworth Press)https://www.lutterworth.com/product/rethinking-hell-readings-in-evangelical-conditionalism (opens in a new tab)
  49. 49History of the project (Rethinking Hell)https://rethinkinghell.com/es/2022/06 (opens in a new tab)
  50. 50Apocatastasis (Catholic Encyclopedia, New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01599a.htm (opens in a new tab)
  51. 51McClymond, Origenes Vindicatus vel Rufinus Redivivus (Theological Studies)https://theologicalstudies.net/articles/origenes-vindicatus-vel-rufinus-redivivus-a-review-of-ilaria-ramellis-the-christian-doctrine-of-apokatastasis-2013 (opens in a new tab)
  52. 52The Evangelical Universalist (Wipf and Stock)https://wipfandstock.com/the-evangelical-universalist.html (opens in a new tab)
  53. 53Review of Hart, That All Shall Be Saved (Religious Studies, Cambridge)https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/religious-studies/article/david-bentley-hart-that-all-shall-be-saved-heaven-hell-and-universal-salvation-new-haven-and-london-yale-university-press-2019-pp-232-2000-hbk-isbn-9780300246223/3790550555AC7980351AC45A30720DF9 (opens in a new tab)
  54. 54Neuhaus, Will All Be Saved? (First Things)https://firstthings.com/will-all-be-saved (opens in a new tab)
  55. 55Millennium and Millenarianism (Catholic Encyclopedia, New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10307a.htm (opens in a new tab)
  56. 56Irenaeus, Against Heresies V.33 (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103533.htm (opens in a new tab)
  57. 57Augustine, City of God, Book XX (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/120120.htm (opens in a new tab)
  58. 58Second Council of Constantinople (Catholic Encyclopedia, New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04308b.htm (opens in a new tab)
  59. 59Schaff, NPNF 2/14, The XV Anathemas against Origen (CCEL)https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214.xii.viii.html (opens in a new tab)
  60. 60Joachim of Fiore (Encyclopaedia Britannica)https://www.britannica.com/print/article/304176 (opens in a new tab)
  61. 61Benedict XII (Catholic Encyclopedia, New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02430a.htm (opens in a new tab)
  62. 62Council of Basel-Ferrara-Florence (Papal Encyclicals Online)https://www.papalencyclicals.net/councils/ecum17.htm (opens in a new tab)
  63. 63Purgatory (Catholic Encyclopedia, New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12575a.htm (opens in a new tab)
  64. 64Council of Trent, Twenty-fifth Session (Papal Encyclicals Online)https://www.papalencyclicals.net/councils/trent/twenty-fifth-session.htm (opens in a new tab)
  65. 65Westminster Confession (Encyclopaedia Britannica)https://www.britannica.com/topic/Westminster-Confession (opens in a new tab)
  66. 66Powerscourt (Brethren Archive)https://brethrenarchive.org/Features/Powerscourt (opens in a new tab)
  67. 67William Miller (Encyclopaedia Britannica)https://www.britannica.com/print/article/382831 (opens in a new tab)
  68. 68Pannenberg, "Constructive and Critical Functions of Christian Eschatology", Harvard Theological Review, 1984 (Cambridge University Press)https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/harvard-theological-review/article/constructive-and-critical-functions-of-christian-eschatology/8A967F0BD2800EF8DE0151D3AC63763C (opens in a new tab)
  69. 69Johannes Weiss (Encyclopaedia Britannica)https://www.britannica.com/biography/Johannes-Weiss (opens in a new tab)
  70. 70Dodd, Charles Harold (Dictionary of Welsh Biography)https://biography.wales/article/s6-DODD-HAR-1884 (opens in a new tab)
  71. 71F. F. Bruce, Eschatology (London Quarterly and Holborn Review)https://gospelstudies.org.uk/theologicalstudies/pdf/eschatology_bruce.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  72. 72Jürgen Moltmann obituary, June 2024 (Christianity Today)https://christianitytoday.com/2024/06/moltmann-obit-theology-hope (opens in a new tab)
  73. 73Lumen Gentium (Holy See)https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html (opens in a new tab)
  74. 74Lumen Gentium (reproduced text) (prayforsouls.org)https://prayforsouls.org/node/86 (opens in a new tab)
  75. 75Is there a hell? You said, Yes (Time NewsFeed)https://newsfeed.time.com/?p=62959 (opens in a new tab)
  76. 76Leo XIV, General Audience, 6 May 2026 (Holy See)https://www.vatican.va/content/leo-xiv/en/audiences/2026/documents/20260506-udienza-generale.html (opens in a new tab)
  77. 77Resurrection (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy)https://iep.utm.edu/resurrec (opens in a new tab)
  78. 78Eschatology (Jewish Encyclopedia, 1906)https://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/5849-eschatology (opens in a new tab)
  79. 79VanderKam, "Recent Studies in 'Apocalyptic'" (Word and World 4.1, 1984)https://wordandworld.luthersem.edu/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/4-1_1984/Recent%20Studies%20in%20'Apocalyptic'.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  80. 80Eschatology (Catholic Encyclopedia, 1909, New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05528b.htm (opens in a new tab)
  81. 81Three Views on the Millennium and Beyond (Zondervan Academic)https://zondervanacademic.com/products/three-views-on-the-millennium-and-beyond (opens in a new tab)
  82. 82Sheol (Bible Odyssey)https://bibleodyssey.com/articles/sheol (opens in a new tab)
  83. 83Day of the Lord (Jewish Virtual Library)https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/day-of-the-lord (opens in a new tab)
  84. 84What Is the First Book of Enoch? (Posen Library)https://www.posenlibrary.com/node/13904 (opens in a new tab)
  85. 85Book of Jubilees (Encyclopaedia Britannica)https://www.britannica.com/topic/Book-of-Jubilees (opens in a new tab)
  86. 86The War Scroll (Israel Museum, Digital Dead Sea Scrolls)http://dss.collections.imj.org.il/war (opens in a new tab)
  87. 87Heaven and Earth Will Obey Messiah, 4Q521 (Israel Bible Center)https://magazine.israelbiblecenter.com/heaven-earth-will-obey-messiah-4q521 (opens in a new tab)
  88. 88Psalms of Solomon (Encyclopaedia Britannica)https://britannica.com/topic/Psalms-of-Solomon (opens in a new tab)
  89. 89Gore-Jones, 4 Ezra and 2 Baruch (Bible and Interpretation)https://bibleinterp.arizona.edu/articles/religious-innovation-and-sacred-scriptures-4-ezra-and-2-baruch (opens in a new tab)
  90. 90Second Coming (Encyclopaedia Britannica)https://www.britannica.com/topic/Second-Coming (opens in a new tab)
  91. 91Eschatology: Christianity (Encyclopaedia Britannica)https://www.britannica.com/topic/eschatology/Christianity (opens in a new tab)
  92. 92Revelation to John (Encyclopaedia Britannica)https://www.britannica.com/topic/Revelation-to-John (opens in a new tab)
  93. 93The Didache, chapter 16, Ante-Nicene Fathers vol. 7 (New Advent)https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0714.htm (opens in a new tab)
  94. 94About four in ten U.S. adults believe humanity is living in the end times, 2022 (Pew Research Center)https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2022/12/08/about-four-in-ten-u-s-adults-believe-humanity-is-living-in-the-end-times (opens in a new tab)
  95. 95Home page (Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library)https://www.deadseascrolls.org.il/ (opens in a new tab)
  96. 96Home page (Christian Classics Ethereal Library)https://www.ccel.org/ (opens in a new tab)
  97. 97Home page (Perseus Digital Library)https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper (opens in a new tab)
  98. 98The Oxford Handbook of Eschatology (Oxford Academic)https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/34387 (opens in a new tab)
  99. 99T&T Clark Handbook of Christian Eschatology (Eden)https://www.eden.co.uk/christian-books/theology-books/t-t-clark-handbook-of-christian-eschatology (opens in a new tab)
  100. 100The Encyclopedia of Apocalypticism (University of Chicago Magazine)https://magazine.uchicago.edu/9812/html/apocalypse.html (opens in a new tab)
  101. 101The Oxford Handbook of Apocalyptic Literature (Oxford Academic)https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/34434 (opens in a new tab)
  102. 102The Oxford Handbook of Millennialism (Oxford Academic)https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/34365 (opens in a new tab)
  103. 103McFarland, "Eschatology", The New Cambridge Companion to Christian Doctrine, 2022 (Cambridge University Press)https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/new-cambridge-companion-to-christian-doctrine/eschatology/CB29042113B4EBC48C4A838CC45EE79C (opens in a new tab)
  104. 104The Bloomsbury Handbook of Apocalypticism and Millennialism, 2025 (Queen's University Belfast)https://www.qub.ac.uk/sites/institute-for-global-peace-security-justice/news/2025/TheBloomsburyHandbookofApocalypticismandMillennialism.html (opens in a new tab)
  105. 105Sturm (ed.), The Bloomsbury Handbook of Apocalypticism and Millennialism, ISBN 9781350421615 (Quialu catalogue)https://www.quialu.ca/produit/9781350421615 (opens in a new tab)
  106. 106The Bible and the Future (WTS Books)https://wtsbooks.com/products/bible-and-the-future-anthony-hoekema-9780802808516 (opens in a new tab)
  107. 107The Presence of the Future (Accordance)https://accordancebible.com/product/the-presence-of-the-future-george-eldon-ladd (opens in a new tab)
  108. 108The Coming of God (Fortress Press)https://fortresspress.com/store/product/9780800636661/The-Coming-of-God (opens in a new tab)
  109. 109Eschatology: Death and Eternal Life (Eden)https://eden.co.uk/christian-books/theology-books/eschatology/eschatology-9780813215167 (opens in a new tab)
  110. 110Eschatology by Hans Schwarz (Christianbook)https://www.christianbook.com/eschatology-hans-schwarz/9780802847331/pd/47331 (opens in a new tab)
  111. 111The Last Things (SPCK)https://spckpublishing.co.uk/last-things-pb (opens in a new tab)
  112. 112Four Views on the Book of Revelation (Accordance)https://www.accordancebible.com/product/four-views-on-the-book-of-revelation (opens in a new tab)
  113. 113Three Views on the Rapture (HarperCollins Christian Publishing)https://www.harpercollinschristian.com/9780310528821/three-views-on-the-rapture (opens in a new tab)
  114. 114The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, 2 vols (buecher.de)https://www.buecher.de/shop/home/artikeldetails/A1008665563 (opens in a new tab)
  115. 1151 Enoch: The Hermeneia Translation (Fortress Press)https://www.fortresspress.com/store/product/9780800699109/1-Enoch (opens in a new tab)
  116. 116Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha (SAGE)https://journals.sagepub.com/home/JSP (opens in a new tab)
  117. 117Dead Sea Discoveries (Brill)https://brill.com/view/journals/dsd/dsd-overview.xml (opens in a new tab)
  118. 118Nova Religio (University of California Press)https://online.ucpress.edu/nr (opens in a new tab)
  119. 119Home page (Evangelical Theological Society)https://www.etsjets.org/ (opens in a new tab)
  120. 120Critical Dictionary of Apocalyptic and Millenarian Movements (CDAMM)https://www.cdamm.org/ (opens in a new tab)
  121. 121Remembering Jürgen Moltmann (Candler School of Theology, Emory University)https://candler.emory.edu/remembering-jurgen-moltmann (opens in a new tab)
  122. 122Professor Jürgen Moltmann dies aged 98, 4 June 2024 (Church Times)https://www.churchtimes.co.uk/articles/2024/7-june/news/world/professor-juergen-moltmann-dies-aged-98 (opens in a new tab)
  123. 123John Mbiti (1931 to 2019) (Centre for the Study of World Christianity, University of Edinburgh)https://www.cswc.div.ed.ac.uk/2019/10/john-mbiti-1931-2019 (opens in a new tab)
  124. 124Faculty profile, John J. Collins (Yale Divinity School)https://divinity.yale.edu/profile/john-j-collins (opens in a new tab)
  125. 125In Memory of C. René Padilla (1932 to 2021) (Center for Global Christianity and Mission, Boston University)https://www.bu.edu/cgcm/?p=11053 (opens in a new tab)
  126. 126Professor Richard Bauckham (Ridley Hall, Cambridge)https://www.ridley.cam.ac.uk/team/professor-richard-bauckham (opens in a new tab)
  127. 127German theologian Wolfhart Pannenberg dies at 85, September 2014 (The Christian Century)https://www.christiancentury.org/article/2014-09/german-theologian-wolfhart-pannenberg-dies-85 (opens in a new tab)
  128. 128Pannenberg, Wolfhart (Deutsche Biographie)https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/118591541.html (opens in a new tab)
  129. 129On C. S. Song (Christian Conference of Asia)https://cca.org.hk/news/cca-mourns-passing-dr-c-s-song-and-reflects-legacy-luminary-asian-theologian (opens in a new tab)
  130. 130Rev Professor Choan-Seng Song (1929 to 2024) (School of Divinity, University of Edinburgh)https://divinity.ed.ac.uk/news-and-events/obituaries/rev-professor-choan-seng-song-1929-2024 (opens in a new tab)
  131. 131People page, Dale C. Allison Jr (Princeton Theological Seminary)https://ptsem.edu/people/dale-c-allison-jr (opens in a new tab)
  132. 132The Revd Canon Dr John Polkinghorne KBE FRS (Westcott House, Cambridge)https://www.westcott.cam.ac.uk/news/the-revd-canon-dr-john-polkinghorne-kbe-frs (opens in a new tab)
  133. 133Jon D. Levenson (Harvard Divinity School)https://www.hds.harvard.edu/people/jon-d-levenson (opens in a new tab)
  134. 134Obituary: The Revd Professor Anthony Thiselton, 28 April 2023 (Church Times)https://churchtimes.co.uk/articles/2023/28-april/gazette/obituaries/obituary-the-revd-professor-anthony-thiselton (opens in a new tab)
  135. 135Prof. Ilaria L. E. Ramelli FRHistS (Stanford Profiles)https://profiles.stanford.edu/ilaria-ramelli?tab=bio (opens in a new tab)
  136. 136Eschatology (Encyclopaedia Britannica)https://www.britannica.com/topic/eschatology (opens in a new tab)
  137. 137Eschatology (Etymonline)https://www.etymonline.com/word/eschatology (opens in a new tab)
  138. 138Sauter, "The Concept and Task of Eschatology", Scottish Journal of Theology 41.4, 1988 (Cambridge University Press)https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/scottish-journal-of-theology/article/abs/concept-and-task-of-eschatology-theological-and-philosophical-reflections/A78CC614F24B1CEF06D2E31689260845 (opens in a new tab)
  139. 139Gehinnom (Jewish Virtual Library)https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/gehinnom (opens in a new tab)
  140. 140Apocalyptic Literature: Definitions (Felix Just, Catholic Resources)https://1981.catholic-resources.org/Bible/Apoc_Def.htm (opens in a new tab)
  141. 141Millennialism (Encyclopaedia Britannica)https://www.britannica.com/topic/millennialism (opens in a new tab)
  142. 142The Rapture: Pre-, Mid-, or Post-Tribulational? (Trinity Evangelical Divinity School)https://www.tiu.edu/divinity/books/the-rapture-pre-mid-or-post-tribulational-contemporary-evangelical-perspectives-eschatology (opens in a new tab)
  143. 143Three Views on the Rapture (HarperCollins Christian Publishing)https://www.harpercollinschristian.com/9780310277200/three-views-on-the-rapture (opens in a new tab)
  144. 144Review of Body, Soul and Life Everlasting (Themelios)https://thegospelcoalition.org/themelios/review/body-soul-life-everlasting (opens in a new tab)
  145. 145Review of Bodies and Souls, or Spirited Bodies? (ISCAST Journal)https://journal.iscast.org/archive/book-review-bodies-and-souls-or-spirited-bodies (opens in a new tab)
  146. 146Millennialism: from the Renaissance to the modern world (Encyclopaedia Britannica)https://www.britannica.com/topic/millennialism/Millennialism-from-the-Renaissance-to-the-modern-world (opens in a new tab)
  147. 147Millennialism: patristic and medieval millennialism (Encyclopaedia Britannica)https://www.britannica.com/topic/millennialism/Patristic-and-medieval-millennialism (opens in a new tab)

Page record

Reviewed and approved by Duane Herholdt, BA (Theology), Chief Executive Officer, Numa Verse

Study version: v1.1, 15 October 2026 (theology map v1.27)

Last reviewed: 9 November 2026

How these pages are made

  • 9 November 2026: First draft from the approved assessment v1.1.