Numa Verse

Biblical studiesWhat does the text say?

Jewish studies and Jewish–Christian relations

What is Jewish studies and Jewish–Christian relations?

Jewish studies and Jewish–Christian relations is the academic study of Jews and Judaism across their whole history, joined to the study of how Jews and Christians have read the Hebrew Bible and treated one another. It covers rabbinic and medieval Jewish interpretation, Jewish movements today, Christian teaching about Jews, and church and Jewish statements since 1945.

  • 155Sources
  • 16Traditions
  • 16Dated entries
  • 17Minutes

Study v1.1, 4 November 2026

Jewish studies and Jewish–Christian relations

At a glance

Why it matters for reading Scripture

The Hebrew Bible is first Israel's Scripture. Jewish reading of it, from the rabbis to today, deserves to be understood fairly and without caricature.

What the study found

Rabbinic Jewish readers interpret the Hebrew Bible through the Mishnah, Talmud, midrash and named commentators, reading its contested texts without Christian messianic meaning; since 1945 many churches have repudiated collective Jewish guilt and replacement teaching.

Where traditions divide

Traditions and scholars divide on supersession, mission to Jews, Messianic Judaism, whether the State of Israel carries theological meaning, and the readings of Isaiah 7:14, Isaiah 53 and Daniel 7.

How the traditions compare

  • Modern Orthodox Judaism

    Affirms Torah min ha-shamayim, Torah from heaven: in the eighth of Maimonides' thirteen foundations of faith the whole Torah came from God through Moses, and its received interpretation is equally from God.

    The Rabbinical Council of America, in 2013, rejected as contrary to historic Judaism the view that the Torah was largely composed by several fallible human authors. Rabbi Joseph B. Soloveitchik backed cooperation with Christians on social, political and ethical questions while taking a more cautious line on dialogue about matters of faith.

    Sources1–3

  • Haredi Judaism

    The stricter wing of Orthodoxy, itself made up of the Hasidic courts, the Lithuanian yeshiva world and Sephardi Haredim.

    Moses Sofer, the Hatam Sofer, turned the Mishnaic phrase "the new is forbidden by the Torah" into a principle against any innovation. Agudat Israel, founded at Kattowitz in May 1912, accepts the decisions of its Council of Torah Sages as binding, and Rabbi Avi Shafran of Agudath Israel objected in 2002 to printing critical scholarship alongside the text of the Torah.

    Sources4–6

  • Conservative (Masorti) Judaism

    Emet ve-Emunah (1988), the movement's statement of principles, calls the Torah the outcome of a divine and human encounter and describes three views of revelation held within the movement: that God communicated actual content in words, that an ineffable encounter inspired human beings to frame norms in human language, or that revelation is a continuing discovery of God's purpose through nature and history.

    Etz Hayim, its Torah and haftarah edition, includes essays stating that the Torah was probably written by many hands over generations.

    Sources6–8

  • Reform and Progressive Judaism

    The Central Conference of American Rabbis has stated its principles in four platforms.

    The Pittsburgh Platform of 1885 treated the Bible as moral instruction reflecting the ideas of its age and held only the moral laws binding; the Statement of Principles of 1999 calls the Torah the foundation of Jewish life and God's ongoing revelation, with renewed attention to the mitzvot. The Union for Reform Judaism describes the Torah as a living, evolving text and holds that there is "more than one authentic way to be Jewish".

    Sources9–11

  • Reconstructionist Judaism

    For Mordecai M. Kaplan, as Richard Hirsh presents him, the Torah was a human document recording the Jewish people's early search for God, and tradition has "a vote but not a veto".

    The movement's own writers present revelation not as dictation but as an ongoing call heard through human capacities and culture, and hold that the Torah is not merely a human creation. Britannica's starker summary, that the movement does not accept the Bible as the inspired word of God, is Britannica's characterization, which those writers qualify.

    Sources12–15

  • Karaite Judaism

    The one living Jewish movement that rejects the Oral Torah altogether: in Britannica's account it treats the Hebrew Bible as the sole source of doctrine and practice and rejects the Talmud as man-made law.

    Meira Polliack describes it as a Jewish variant of sola scriptura, and notes that Karaites developed their own concept of tradition to codify practice. The Karaite Jews of America say that Karaites seek the plain meaning of the text.

    Sources16–19

  • Humanistic Judaism

    The Society for Humanistic Judaism describes a Judaism independent of supernatural authority, with Jewish identity rooted in culture, history and ethics, and calls the movement nontheistic.

    Rabbi Sherwin T. Wine founded the Birmingham Temple in 1963 as the first Humanistic congregation and helped establish the Society in 1969.

    Sources20–22

  • Roman Catholic Church

    Nostra Aetate 4 (28 October 1965) affirms a spiritual bond between the Church and the descendants of Abraham and, citing Romans 11:28 to 29, that God's gifts and call are irrevocable.

    The 1985 Notes of the Commission for Religious Relations with the Jews keep the traditional name Old Testament but state that "Old" does not mean out of date or outworn. The Commission's text of 10 December 2015, which states that it is not a magisterial document, rejects replacement theology while holding that the New Covenant fulfills the earlier covenants without revoking them, and says that the Church neither conducts nor supports any specific institutional mission work directed toward Jews.

    Sources23–26

  • World Council of Churches

    Its First Assembly, in 1948, received a report declaring "Anti-Semitism is sin against God and man."

    The same report held that the Great Commission includes the Jewish people. In 1961 the Third Assembly added that Christian teaching must not present the events of the Crucifixion so as to place responsibility on the Jewish people of today. On mission its Faith and Order report of 1967 said plainly "we find ourselves divided", and the Sigtuna text of 1988 declared coercive proselytism incompatible with Christian faith while leaving the wider question open.

    Sources27–30

  • Lutheran and German Protestant churches

    The Lutheran World Federation, in 1983, said that Lutherans cannot accept or condone Luther's violent verbal attacks on the Jews, and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America in 1994 rejected "this violent invective".

    The Synod of the Evangelical Church in the Rhineland (1980) affirmed the permanent election of the Jewish people and read the founding of the State of Israel as a sign of God's faithfulness. The EKD Synod in 2016 stated that all efforts to move Jews to change their religion contradict the confession of God's faithfulness, while the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod holds that sharing the gospel with Jews is a biblical duty.

    Sources31–35

  • Presbyterian churches

    The Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.), in a text of 1987 commended for study, describes the Church as grafted into the covenant people and states "Christians have not replaced Jews"; it binds the land promises to justice and rejects end-time readings of Israel's founding.

    The Presbyterian Church in Canada (2011) holds that one covenant of grace embraces Jews and Gentiles, rejects replacement and calls for humble witness to Christ.

    Sources36–37

  • Anglican churches

    The Lambeth Conference of 1988, in a section report, rejected treating Judaism as a superseded "living fossil" and noted that Anglicans hold divided views on inviting Jews to faith in Jesus.

    The Church of England's God's Unfailing Word (2019), a teaching document, treats supersessionism as flawed, names the charge of collective guilt for Christ's death among the Christian sins that call for repentance, and leaves a disagreement on mission visible: Chief Rabbi Ephraim Mirvis, in its afterword, voiced misgiving that it did not go further in rejecting evangelism directed at Jews.

    Sources38–39

  • United Methodist Church

    Bridge in Hope (1972) states that there is "no valid biblical or theological basis for antisemitism" and calls for dialogue without seeking conversion.

    Building New Bridges in Hope (1996) affirms that the Jewish people continue in covenantal relationship with God and treats the evangelization of Jews as a matter for continuing reflection.

    Sources40–41

  • Evangelical statements

    The Willowbank Declaration (1989), the Manila Manifesto (1989), the Southern Baptist Convention's resolution of 1996 and the Cape Town Commitment (2010) hold that Christian witness to Jews is required.

    Willowbank states that failing to preach the gospel to Jews would itself be a form of antisemitism, while the Cape Town Commitment does not mention antisemitism. Willowbank also affirms that Jewish people "have an ongoing part in God's plan".

    Sources42–47

  • Eastern Orthodox churches

    The official text of the Holy and Great Council of Crete (2016) affirms the equality of every person regardless of race or religion but does not use the word antisemitism.

    A Christian Roundtable of Orthodox priests and cultural figures, meeting in Jerusalem in 2007, rejected replacement theology and asked for review of certain hymns of Passion Week; its standing is that of a private declaration. The contributors to Orthodox Liturgy and Anti-Judaism (2024) disagree on whether and how such hymns should be revised.

    Sources48–50

  • Messianic Judaism

    The Messianic Jewish Alliance of America and the Union of Messianic Jewish Congregations describe their movement as Jewish.

    The Central Conference of American Rabbis (1985) states that all recognized Jewish movements regard belief in Jesus as God, Messiah or Savior as Christian doctrine outside Judaism, and the Conservative Committee on Jewish Law and Standards (2012) treats members of Messianic groups as apostate Jews. Israel's High Court of Justice, in HCJ 265/87 as a law firm's summary reports it, held that belief in Yeshua's messiahship placed a person in another religion under section 4B of the Law of Return.

    Sources51–55

How the field developed

  1. Early church
    c. 190 to 230

    The Mishnah, the foundational code of rabbinic law, is compiled under Judah ha-Nasi; Sefaria dates it to about 190 to 230 CE in the Land of Israel, while the Jewish Encyclopedia and Britannica give the early third century.565758

  2. Late antiquity
    c. 450 to 550

    The Babylonian Talmud, which became the principal text of rabbinic study, is dated by Sefaria to about 450 to 550 CE in Babylonia; Britannica dates the making of both Talmuds broadly to the third to sixth centuries.5960

  3. Medieval
    May 1096

    During the First Crusade, the Hebrew chronicle of Rabbi Eliezer bar Nathan records about 800 Jews killed at Worms over two days and about 1,300 at Mainz in a single day. The bishops of Speyer, Mainz and Cologne tried to shelter Jews; at Mainz and Cologne the refuge failed.61

  4. Medieval
    1120

    Pope Calixtus II issues the protective bull Constitutio pro Judaeis, opening with Gregory I's words "Sicut Judaeis"; later popes often renew it on their accession, usually at Jewish request.62

  5. Medieval
    1215

    The Fourth Lateran Council requires Jews and Saracens to wear distinctive dress and bars Jews from public office over Christians (canons 68 and 69).63

  6. Medieval
    25 to 27 June 1240

    At Paris, Jehiel of Paris leads the Jewish answer to Nicholas Donin's charges against the Talmud in a public disputation. In June 1242, 24 wagon loads of books are burned in public.6465

  7. Medieval
    20 July 1263

    At Barcelona, before King James I of Aragon, Nahmanides debates the convert Pablo Christiani on three questions, among them whether the Messiah has already come; after he publishes his account the king can no longer protect him, and he leaves the country.66

  8. Medieval
    31 March 1492

    The edict of Ferdinand and Isabella gives the Jews of Spain the choice of exile or baptism; Britannica states that more than 160,000 Jews were expelled.67

  9. Reformation
    1516 to 1518

    Daniel Bomberg's press at Venice prints the first Rabbinic Bible, edited by Felix Pratensis and usually dated 1517. The Rabbinic Bible, Mikraot Gedolot, sets the Hebrew text with the Targum, the Masorah and the classic commentaries on the same page.68697071

  10. Reformation
    1523 and 1543

    Martin Luther's That Jesus Christ Was Born a Jew (1523) calls Jews blood relatives of Christ and urges kindly instruction from Scripture. His On the Jews and Their Lies (1543) urges that synagogues be burned, books seized and rabbis forbidden to teach.7273

  11. Modern
    1818

    Leopold Zunz's essay Etwas über die rabbinische Litteratur argues that Judaism and its literature belong in university scholarship, and the Jewish Encyclopedia treats it as the first outline of a Jewish science. With it the modern field begins, in the movement known as the Wissenschaft des Judentums.7475

  12. Modern
    5 August 1947

    The Ten Points of Seelisberg, which drew on Jules Isaac's eighteen recommendations, ask that Judaism not be distorted in order to exalt Christianity and that the idea of a rejected, cursed or suffering-destined Jewish people not be promoted. The CCJR places them among the first postwar Christian documents in which Christians, advised by Jews, began to face the implications of the Shoah.7677

  13. Modern
    28 October 1965

    Paul VI proclaims Nostra Aetate at the Second Vatican Council. Its section 4 decries hatred, persecutions and displays of antisemitism directed against Jews at any time and by anyone.23

  14. Modern
    10 September 2000

    Dabru Emet, a Jewish statement on Christians and Christianity written by Tikva Frymer-Kensky, David Novak, Peter Ochs and Michael Signer and co-signed by over 200 rabbis and scholars, appears in the New York Times. It is a statement of individual scholars, not of any rabbinic body.78

  15. Modern
    31 August 2017

    The Conference of European Rabbis, the Rabbinical Council of America and the Chief Rabbinate of Israel present Between Jerusalem and Rome to Pope Francis. It describes the beliefs centered on Jesus as Messiah as an irreconcilable separation, yet calls Catholics partners, allies, friends and brothers.79

  16. Modern
    16 September 2026

    A Journey of Hope, a curial note approved by Leo XIV, says that Jesus was and always remained a Jew and affirms God's irrevocable covenant with the Jewish people while rejecting two parallel paths to salvation. Riccardo Di Segni, Chief Rabbi of Rome, welcomes its condemnation of antisemitism but judges its insistence on Christ as sole Redeemer theologically unresolved.8081

How to study Jewish studies and Jewish–Christian relations

The questions it asks

  • How do named Jewish readers, from the Talmud and midrash to the medieval commentators, read the passages Christian teaching has most often read as prophecies of Jesus, and where do the readings meet and part?
  • Which rabbi, work or movement holds a given reading, and is the reading shared across the classical rabbinic tradition or held by some movements only?1615
  • How far can a saying that a rabbinic compilation attributes to a sage be used as evidence for the Judaism of Jesus' day?8283
  • When, and whether, did Judaism and Christianity part?8485
  • How did Christian teaching, church law, papal and imperial authority and popular violence shape the lives of Jews from the second century to 1945?
  • What does each statement made since 1945 say, who issued it, and with what standing?2325

Its method

Start

  1. Start from a named translation, with the relevant Hebrew or Greek and any material alternative rendering beside it, since a translation already contains interpretive decisions.

  2. Set out what named scholars or reference works say of the passage's date, setting and grammar.

  3. Name each Jewish and Christian reading by its holder, with the work, century, verse or church body, and show the range within each tradition where readings differ8.

  4. State where the readings meet and where they part, as a description, without a verdict on which reading is right.

  5. Cite each source to its speaker, passage, edition and, where it matters, textual variant: Mishnah Sanhedrin 4:5 reads "one soul of Israel" in the printed editions, while MS Kaufmann A 50, MS Parma 3173 and MS Munich 95 lack the addition8687.

  6. Label each claim by its kind: historical reconstruction, peshat (plain sense), midrash, halakhic ruling, theological claim or communal practice.

  7. Allow for censorship: the printed texts of the Talmud and of some commentaries were cut by censors or printers, so a passage missing from a standard text may have been removed rather than never written8889.

  8. Attribute every date where authorities differ, since datings of the midrashim and Targums differ by centuries between the Jewish Encyclopedia and Sefaria's catalogue909192.

What to read

Its primary witnesses

  • The Mishnah, in six orders, carried complete by three manuscripts, among them MS Kaufmann A 50, which the Budapest catalogue dates to the tenth or eleventh century and Yehudit Henshke to roughly the eleventh to twelfth579394.
  • The Tosefta, a second collection of tannaitic law, which Wilhelm Bacher and Jacob Zallel Lauterbach treat as an independent collection rather than a commentary on the Mishnah95.
  • The Jerusalem Talmud, complete only in Leiden, Or. 4720, a parchment codex dated 128996.
  • The Babylonian Talmud, complete only in the Munich manuscript, which the National Library of Israel dates to 13428897.
  • The halakhic midrashim, such as the Mekhilta, Sifra and Sifre, and the aggadic midrashim, such as Genesis Rabbah9899.
  • The Targums, the Aramaic translations read in the synagogue beside the Hebrew: Onqelos, Jonathan to the Prophets, Pseudo-Jonathan and Neofiti100101102.
  • The medieval commentators, among them Saadia Gaon, Rashi, Abraham ibn Ezra and David Kimhi (Radak)10310410589.
  • The early Christian writings addressed against the Jews, among them the Epistle of Barnabas, Justin Martyr's Dialogue with Trypho and Tertullian's Against the Jews106.
  • The Hebrew chronicles of 1096, which frame the deaths as kiddush hashem, the sanctification of the divine Name61.
  • The church and Jewish statements made since 1945, reproduced with date and issuing body in the Dialogika library of the Council of Centers on Jewish-Christian Relations107.

Standard reference works

  • The Jewish Study Bible (2004), edited by Adele Berlin and Marc Zvi Brettler with Michael Fishbane as consulting editor, which pairs the JPS translation with introductions, annotations and essays108.
  • The Jewish Annotated New Testament (2011; second edition 2017), edited by Amy-Jill Levine and Marc Zvi Brettler109.
  • Mikraot Gedolot Haketer of Bar-Ilan University, a critical Rabbinic Bible based on the Aleppo Codex110.
  • Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia and its successor Biblia Hebraica Quinta, which rest on the Leningrad Codex111112.
  • Saul Lieberman's The Tosefta and Tosefta Ki-Fshutah113.
  • Adin Steinsaltz's translation of the Babylonian Talmud, completed in English by Koren in 42 volumes in 2019, and the ArtScroll Schottenstein Edition in 73 volumes114115.
  • Sefaria, where each version of a text carries its own license116.
  • The 1906 Jewish Encyclopedia, whose article on Bible exegesis maps Jewish interpretation by period; its evaluative words are those of 1906117.
  • The Jewish Quarterly Review (1889), the Journal of Jewish Studies (1948) and AJS Review118119120.
  • Studies in Christian-Jewish Relations, a peer-reviewed, open access journal published by the Center for Christian-Jewish Learning at Boston College121.

Scholarship referenced in this study

The works below shaped the field and are cited in this study, from the earliest to the most recent. Hover over a book, or select it, to see its author and the sources behind it.

  • 1832Die gottesdienstlichen Vorträge der Juden, historisch entwickeltLeopold ZunzDie gottesdienstlichen Vorträge der Juden, historisch entwickelt (1832)Leopold Zunz (10 August 1794 to 18 March 1886)Sources74–75
  • 1857Urschrift und Übersetzungen der BibelAbraham GeigerUrschrift und Übersetzungen der Bibel (1857)Abraham Geiger (24 May 1810 to 23 October 1874)Sources122
  • 1934The Conflict of the Church and the SynagogueJames ParkesThe Conflict of the Church and the Synagogue (1934)James Parkes (1896 to 1981)Sources123
  • 1962L'Enseignement du méprisJules IsaacL'Enseignement du mépris (1962)Jules Isaac (18 November 1877 to 1963)Sources124
  • 1964ConfrontationJoseph B. SoloveitchikConfrontation (1964)Joseph B. Soloveitchik (1903 to 1993)Sources3125
  • 1977Paul and Palestinian JudaismE. P. SandersPaul and Palestinian Judaism (1977)E. P. Sanders (18 April 1937 to 21 November 2022)Sources126–127
  • 1985Biblical Interpretation in Ancient IsraelMichael FishbaneBiblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel (1985)Michael FishbaneSources128
  • 1991The Partings of the Ways between Christianity and JudaismJames D. G. DunnThe Partings of the Ways between Christianity and Judaism (1991)James D. G. Dunn (21 October 1939 to 26 June 2020)Sources129–130
  • 1996The God of Israel and Christian TheologyR. Kendall SoulenThe God of Israel and Christian Theology (1996)R. Kendall SoulenSources131
  • 2002Reading the Women of the BibleTikva Frymer-KenskyReading the Women of the Bible (2002)Tikva Frymer-Kensky (1943 to 2006)Sources132
  • 2011The Jewish Annotated New TestamentAmy-Jill LevineThe Jewish Annotated New Testament (2011)Amy-Jill Levine, with Marc Zvi BrettlerSources109
  • 2011 to 2012Cursing the Christians? A History of the Birkat HaMinimRuth LangerCursing the Christians? A History of the Birkat HaMinim (2011 to 2012)Ruth LangerSources133

Listed because this study draws on their published work; no association with or endorsement of Numa Verse is implied. Suggest a correction.

Key terms

The words that carry the most weight in this field, each defined from the sources of this study. Turn a card over to read its definition.

The Jewish acronym for the three divisions of the Hebrew Bible, Torah (Instruction or Law), Nevi'im (Prophets) and Ketuvim (Writings), which the Jewish count gives as 24 books134135.

The traditional teaching that, in rabbinic Judaism, came with the written Torah; the Talmud at Berakhot 5a reads Exodus 24:12 to teach that the Mishnah and the Talmud were given to Moses at Sinai, and the Karaites reject it13616.

The foundational code of rabbinic law, arranged in six orders and compiled under Judah ha-Nasi57.

In its broad sense the Mishnah, the Gemara (commentary on and elaboration of the Mishnah) and auxiliary material; there is a Jerusalem and a Babylonian Talmud13788.

Both a mode of biblical interpretation prominent in Talmudic literature and the body of commentaries that use it, from a root meaning exposition or investigation138.

An Aramaic translation of the Hebrew Bible, read in the synagogue alongside the Hebrew100.

Peshat is the plain sense; PaRDeS gathers four levels, peshat, remez (allusion), derash (homiletic exposition) and sod (the mystical sense), which Gershom Scholem argues Moses de León was the first to read as an acronym139140.

The evil and the good inclination. Genesis Rabbah 9:7 reads the "very good" of creation as including the evil inclination, and the Talmud at Kiddushin 30b has God call the Torah its antidote141142143.

The view, also called fulfillment or replacement theology, that Christians have replaced the Jewish people as heirs of the covenant in the Hebrew Bible; R. Kendall Soulen distinguishes economic, punitive and structural forms144131.

The twelfth benediction of the weekday Amidah, against the minim. Ruth Langer argues that its original wording and targets cannot be securely reconstructed, while in its medieval forms it was clearly a curse of Christians145146.

Where it sits

Builds on

Jewish studies and Jewish–Christian relations

Questions people ask

No. The Jewish movements differ on revelation and on the authorship of the Torah: the Rabbinical Council of America treats multiple human authorship as contrary to historic Judaism, the Conservative statement Emet ve-Emunah describes three views of revelation, Reconstructionist writers present revelation as a call heard through human capacities and culture, and the Karaites reject the rabbinic Oral Torah281416. Even a doctrine shared across the classical rabbinic tradition, such as the Oral Torah of Berakhot 5a, is not universal, since Karaites, Reconstructionists and Humanists depart from it136161520.

In several ways. Rashi and Radak read the servant as Israel among the nations, with 53:1 to 4 spoken by the nations147148. Ibn Ezra expounds the Israel reading, then at the close of his comment on 53:12 gives his own view, linking the servant to 42:1, 49:3 and the figure of 50:6149. Targum Jonathan names the servant as the Messiah but moves the suffering away from him, and Sotah 14a applies 53:12 to Moses150151. Christian readers, from Acts 8:32 to 35 onward, read the servant as Jesus152.

Nostra Aetate 4, proclaimed at the Second Vatican Council on 28 October 1965, affirms the Church's spiritual bond with the descendants of Abraham and recalls that the apostles and most of the early disciples were Jews23. It holds that what happened in the Passion cannot be charged against all Jews then living or against Jews today, and that Jews should not be presented as rejected or accursed by God, as if this followed from Scripture23.

Positions differ by body. The Commission for Religious Relations with the Jews (2015) says that the Catholic Church neither conducts nor supports institutional mission work directed toward Jews, while Christians remain called to bear witness with humility and sensitivity26. The EKD Synod (2016) rejects all efforts to move Jews to change their religion34. The Willowbank Declaration, the Southern Baptist Convention (1996) and the Cape Town Commitment hold that witness to Jews is required424445. The Central Council of Jews in Germany and the Chief Rabbi of the United Kingdom have criticized mission directed at Jews15339.

Scholars disagree. The volume edited by James D. G. Dunn in 1992 frames the parting between 70 and 135 CE; an endorsement of Adam H. Becker and Annette Yoshiko Reed's volume summarizes its thesis that the two became clearly separate only after about 400 CE; and Daniel Boyarin, in Michael Carden's reading, places the key developments in the fourth and fifth centuries84154155. Judith Lieu questions the parting model itself, arguing that it serves a theological wish and would not have been recognized by Christians, Jews or pagans of the period85.

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  1. 1Maimonides, Commentary on the Mishnah, Sanhedrin 10:1 (Sefaria)https://www.sefaria.org/api/v3/texts/Rambam_on_Mishnah_Sanhedrin.10.1?version=english (opens in a new tab)
  2. 2RCA Statement on Torah Min HaShamayim, 31 July 2013 (Rabbinical Council of America)https://rabbis.org/?p=1512 (opens in a new tab)
  3. 3Aaron Rothkoff and Dov Schwartz, Soloveitchik, Joseph Baer (Encyclopaedia Judaica, Encyclopedia.com)https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/soloveitchik-joseph-baer (opens in a new tab)
  4. 4Moshe Shraga Samet, Sofer, Moses (Encyclopaedia Judaica, Encyclopedia.com)https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/sofer-moses (opens in a new tab)
  5. 5Agudat Israel (Encyclopaedia Judaica, Encyclopedia.com)https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/agudat-israel (opens in a new tab)
  6. 6Daniel Schifrin, article on the Etz Hayim Chumash (JTA, 26 April 2002)https://jta.org/?p=1792892 (opens in a new tab)
  7. 7Emet V'Emunah: Statement of Principles of Conservative Judaism, introduction (Masorti Olami)https://masortiolami.org/resource/emet-vemunah-statement-of-principles-of-conservative (opens in a new tab)
  8. 8Emet ve-Emunah: Statement of Principles of Conservative Judaism, full text (Berman Jewish Policy Archive)https://www.bjpa.org/content/upload/bjpa/stat/STATEMENT%20OF%20PRINCIPLES%20OF%20CONSERVATIVE%20JUDAISM.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  9. 9The Pittsburgh Platform, 1885 (Central Conference of American Rabbis)https://www.ccarnet.org/rabbinic-voice/platforms/article-declaration-principles/ (opens in a new tab)
  10. 10A Statement of Principles for Reform Judaism, 1999 (Central Conference of American Rabbis)https://www.ccarnet.org/rabbinic-voice/platforms/article-statement-principles-reform-judaism/ (opens in a new tab)
  11. 11What We Believe (Union for Reform Judaism)https://urj.org/what-we-believe (opens in a new tab)
  12. 12Reconstructionism, Richard Hirsh (Encyclopaedia Judaica, Encyclopedia.com)https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/reconstructionism (opens in a new tab)
  13. 13Les Bronstein, Reconstructionist Judaism Crash Course (Reconstructing Judaism, 30 May 2016)https://www.reconstructingjudaism.org/article/reconstructionist-judaism-crash-course (opens in a new tab)
  14. 14Jacob Staub, Theologies for Shavuot (Evolve, Reconstructing Judaism, 26 July 2017)https://evolve.reconstructingjudaism.org/shavuot-theology/ (opens in a new tab)
  15. 15Reconstructionism (Encyclopaedia Britannica)https://www.britannica.com/topic/Reconstructionism (opens in a new tab)
  16. 16Karaism (Encyclopaedia Britannica)https://www.britannica.com/topic/Karaism (opens in a new tab)
  17. 17Meira Polliack, Rethinking Karaism: Between Judaism and Islam (AJS Review, Cambridge Core)https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/ajs-review/article/rethinking-karaism-between-judaism-and-islam/B01465BB903EF30669242D9F2F2ACE43 (opens in a new tab)
  18. 18Meira Polliack, Wherein Lies the Pesher? (JSIJ 4, Bar-Ilan University)https://jewish-faculty.biu.ac.il/sites/jewish-faculty/files/shared/JSIJ4/polliack.pdf (opens in a new tab)
  19. 19Questions and Answers (Karaite Jews of America)https://karaites.org/questions-answers/ (opens in a new tab)
  20. 20Home page (Society for Humanistic Judaism)https://shj.org/ (opens in a new tab)
  21. 21Mission and Vision (Society for Humanistic Judaism)https://shj.org/about-shj/mission-and-vision/ (opens in a new tab)
  22. 22Rabbi Sherwin T. Wine (Society for Humanistic Judaism)https://shj.org/meaning-learning/what-is-humanistic-judaism/rabbi-sherwin-t-wine/ (opens in a new tab)
  23. 23Nostra Aetate (Holy See)https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_decl_19651028_nostra-aetate_en.html (opens in a new tab)
  24. 24Notes on the Correct Way to Present the Jews and Judaism in Preaching and Catechesis (Commission for Religious Relations with the Jews, jcrelations.net)https://www.jcrelations.net/article/notes-on-the-correct-way-to-present-the-jews-and-judaism-in-preaching-and-catechesis.html (opens in a new tab)
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  80. 80Note. A Journey of Hope (Holy See, 16 September 2026)https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith/documents/rc_ddf_doc_20260916_nota-cammino-speranza_en.html (opens in a new tab)
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  146. 146Ruth Langer, Cursing the Christians? History of the Birkat HaMinim (Bible and Interpretation, January 2012)https://bibleinterp.arizona.edu/node/2707 (opens in a new tab)
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  151. 151Babylonian Talmud, Sotah 14a, William Davidson Edition (Sefaria)https://www.sefaria.org/api/v3/texts/Sotah.14a?version=english (opens in a new tab)
  152. 152Berean Standard Bible, Acts 8 (Bible Hub)https://biblehub.com/bsb/acts/8.htm (opens in a new tab)
  153. 153Was hat die EKD-Synode in Bremen 2015 eigentlich beschlossen? (evangelisch.de, 12 November 2015)https://www.evangelisch.de/inhalte/128166/12-11-2015/was-hat-die-ekd-synode-2015-bremen-eigentlich-beschlossen (opens in a new tab)
  154. 154The Ways That Never Parted, ed. Becker and Reed (Fortress Press)https://www.fortresspress.com/store/product/9780800662097/The-Ways-That-Never-Parted-Jews-and-Christians-in-Late-Antiquity-and-the-Early-Middle-Ages (opens in a new tab)
  155. 155Michael Carden, review of Daniel Boyarin, Border Lines (The Bible and Critical Theory)https://bibleandcriticaltheory.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/vol1-no4-2005-review-border-lines-carden-68-261-1-PB-2jo222q.pdf (opens in a new tab)

Page record

Reviewed and approved by Duane Herholdt, BA (Theology), Chief Executive Officer, Numa Verse

Study version: v1.1, 4 November 2026 (theology map v1.27)

Last reviewed: 9 November 2026

How these pages are made

  • 9 November 2026: First draft from the approved study v1.1.